Neurobiology DT1
Inhoud
Chapter 1 Studying the Nervous System ...................................................................................4
Neural circuits: ....................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2 Electrical Signals of Nerve Cells ............................................................................. 11
Electrical signals of nerve cells ........................................................................................... 11
Long distance transmission of electrical signals ................................................................. 14
How ion movements produce electical signals.................................................................... 15
Chapter 3 Voltage-Dependent Membrane Permeability ........................................................... 17
Ion currents ....................................................................................................................... 17
Membrane conductance .................................................................................................... 18
Hodgkin-Huxley model ....................................................................................................... 18
Long distance traveling ...................................................................................................... 19
Myelination ........................................................................................................................ 19
Chapter 4 Ion Channels and Transporters ............................................................................... 21
Patch-clamp method ......................................................................................................... 21
How ion channels work ...................................................................................................... 21
Voltage gated ion channels................................................................................................. 22
Ligand-gated ion channels ................................................................................................. 23
Thermosensitive and mechanosensitive channels .............................................................. 24
Active transporters create and maintain ion gradients ......................................................... 24
ATPase pumps ................................................................................................................... 24
Ion exchangers .................................................................................................................. 25
Chapter 22 Early Brain Development ...................................................................................... 26
Formation of the nervous system: gastrulation and neurulation ........................................... 26
Formation of the major brain subdivisions........................................................................... 27
The molecular basis of neural induction.............................................................................. 29
Stem cells ......................................................................................................................... 31
Integrated inductive signals establish neuron identity .......................................................... 31
Initial differentiation of neurons and glia ............................................................................. 31
Molecular regulation of neurogenesis ................................................................................. 32
Generation of neuronal diversity ......................................................................................... 33
Molecular and genetic disruptions of early neural development ........................................... 33
Neuronal migration in the peripheral nervous system .......................................................... 34
1
, Neuronal migration in the central nervous system ............................................................... 34
Cranial placodes: the critical connection between the brain and the outside world .............. 35
Neuroanatomy ...................................................................................................................... 36
Subdivisions of CNS........................................................................................................... 36
Brain stem and cranial nerves............................................................................................. 39
Cerebrum .......................................................................................................................... 43
Lateral surface of the brain ................................................................................................. 46
Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the brain .............................................................................. 46
Midsagittal surface of the brain........................................................................................... 47
Internal anatomy of the forebrain ........................................................................................ 48
Thalamus and thalamocortical relations ............................................................................. 49
Blood supply to the brain .................................................................................................... 50
The blood-brain barrier ....................................................................................................... 52
Cerebro Spinal Fluid (CSF): circulation ............................................................................... 52
Ventricular system: meninges ............................................................................................ 53
Chapter 5 Synaptic Transmission ........................................................................................... 54
Two classes of synapses .................................................................................................... 54
Signaling transmission at electrical synapses ..................................................................... 54
Signaling transmission at chemical synapses...................................................................... 55
Properties of neurotransmitters .......................................................................................... 56
Quantal release of neurotransmitters ................................................................................. 56
Release of transmitters from synaptic vesicles .................................................................... 57
Local recycling of synaptic vesicles .................................................................................... 57
The role of calcium in transmitter secretion ........................................................................ 57
Molecular mechanisms of synaptic vesicle cycling.............................................................. 58
Neurotransmitter receptors ................................................................................................ 59
Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes during synaptic transmission ....................... 60
Relationship between ion fluxes and postsynaptic potential changes .................................. 61
Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials ................................................................ 62
Summation of synaptic potentials ...................................................................................... 62
Chapter 6 Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors .................................................................. 63
Categories of neurotransmitters ......................................................................................... 63
Acetylcholine..................................................................................................................... 63
Glutamate ......................................................................................................................... 65
GABA and glycine............................................................................................................... 66
Biogenic amines ................................................................................................................ 68
2
, ATP and other purines ........................................................................................................ 70
Peptide neurotransmitters .................................................................................................. 70
Unconventional neurotransmitters ..................................................................................... 71
Chapter 8 Synaptic Plasticity ................................................................................................. 72
Short-term synaptic plasticity............................................................................................. 72
Long-term synaptic plasticity and behavioral modification in Aplysia ................................... 73
Long-term potential at a hippocampal synapse ................................................................... 75
Mechanisms underlying long-term potentiation .................................................................. 76
Mechanisms underlying long-term depression .................................................................... 77
Spike-timing-dependent plasticity ...................................................................................... 78
Guest lecture the balanced brain: two-photon microscopy of inhibitory synapse formation ...... 80
Two-photon microscopy: focus on synapses ....................................................................... 83
3
, Chapter 1 Studying the Nervous System
Neuron doctrine:
- Neurons are discrete cells and not one continuum
- Neurons communicate via specialized contacts; synapses
- Information passes through the neuron in a certain direction: Dendrites (in) -> Soma ->
Axon (out)
2 types of cells in the brain:
- Nerve cells/neurons
o Electrical signals over long distances (up to one meter)
o by means of electrical action potentials
o Without loss of signal strength
o Computation
o Consist of axon and dendrites
o Axon terminal of presynaptic neuron is adjacent to postsynaptic receptor on
target cell
▪ Communicate via secretion of neurotransmitters (chemical synaps)
▪ Space between pre- and postsynaptic elements = synaptic cleft
o Local circuit neurons (interneurons) have relatively short axons
o Axons convey signals over long distance by action potentials
- Glial cells
o Structural support
o Metabolic support
o Myelin sheath surrounding axons
o Providing scaffolds
o Immune response
o Stem cells (limited in the brain) to repair nervous system damage
▪ Can give rise to new glia and new neurons
o Three types:
▪ Oligodendrocytes
- Wrap myelin around some axons in CNS > higher transmission
speed
▪ Schwann cells
- Wrap myelin around some axons in PNS
▪ Microglial cells
- Macrophages of the brain
Connectivity:
- Convergence: number of inputs
- Divergence: number of outputs/ targets
4
Inhoud
Chapter 1 Studying the Nervous System ...................................................................................4
Neural circuits: ....................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2 Electrical Signals of Nerve Cells ............................................................................. 11
Electrical signals of nerve cells ........................................................................................... 11
Long distance transmission of electrical signals ................................................................. 14
How ion movements produce electical signals.................................................................... 15
Chapter 3 Voltage-Dependent Membrane Permeability ........................................................... 17
Ion currents ....................................................................................................................... 17
Membrane conductance .................................................................................................... 18
Hodgkin-Huxley model ....................................................................................................... 18
Long distance traveling ...................................................................................................... 19
Myelination ........................................................................................................................ 19
Chapter 4 Ion Channels and Transporters ............................................................................... 21
Patch-clamp method ......................................................................................................... 21
How ion channels work ...................................................................................................... 21
Voltage gated ion channels................................................................................................. 22
Ligand-gated ion channels ................................................................................................. 23
Thermosensitive and mechanosensitive channels .............................................................. 24
Active transporters create and maintain ion gradients ......................................................... 24
ATPase pumps ................................................................................................................... 24
Ion exchangers .................................................................................................................. 25
Chapter 22 Early Brain Development ...................................................................................... 26
Formation of the nervous system: gastrulation and neurulation ........................................... 26
Formation of the major brain subdivisions........................................................................... 27
The molecular basis of neural induction.............................................................................. 29
Stem cells ......................................................................................................................... 31
Integrated inductive signals establish neuron identity .......................................................... 31
Initial differentiation of neurons and glia ............................................................................. 31
Molecular regulation of neurogenesis ................................................................................. 32
Generation of neuronal diversity ......................................................................................... 33
Molecular and genetic disruptions of early neural development ........................................... 33
Neuronal migration in the peripheral nervous system .......................................................... 34
1
, Neuronal migration in the central nervous system ............................................................... 34
Cranial placodes: the critical connection between the brain and the outside world .............. 35
Neuroanatomy ...................................................................................................................... 36
Subdivisions of CNS........................................................................................................... 36
Brain stem and cranial nerves............................................................................................. 39
Cerebrum .......................................................................................................................... 43
Lateral surface of the brain ................................................................................................. 46
Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the brain .............................................................................. 46
Midsagittal surface of the brain........................................................................................... 47
Internal anatomy of the forebrain ........................................................................................ 48
Thalamus and thalamocortical relations ............................................................................. 49
Blood supply to the brain .................................................................................................... 50
The blood-brain barrier ....................................................................................................... 52
Cerebro Spinal Fluid (CSF): circulation ............................................................................... 52
Ventricular system: meninges ............................................................................................ 53
Chapter 5 Synaptic Transmission ........................................................................................... 54
Two classes of synapses .................................................................................................... 54
Signaling transmission at electrical synapses ..................................................................... 54
Signaling transmission at chemical synapses...................................................................... 55
Properties of neurotransmitters .......................................................................................... 56
Quantal release of neurotransmitters ................................................................................. 56
Release of transmitters from synaptic vesicles .................................................................... 57
Local recycling of synaptic vesicles .................................................................................... 57
The role of calcium in transmitter secretion ........................................................................ 57
Molecular mechanisms of synaptic vesicle cycling.............................................................. 58
Neurotransmitter receptors ................................................................................................ 59
Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes during synaptic transmission ....................... 60
Relationship between ion fluxes and postsynaptic potential changes .................................. 61
Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials ................................................................ 62
Summation of synaptic potentials ...................................................................................... 62
Chapter 6 Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors .................................................................. 63
Categories of neurotransmitters ......................................................................................... 63
Acetylcholine..................................................................................................................... 63
Glutamate ......................................................................................................................... 65
GABA and glycine............................................................................................................... 66
Biogenic amines ................................................................................................................ 68
2
, ATP and other purines ........................................................................................................ 70
Peptide neurotransmitters .................................................................................................. 70
Unconventional neurotransmitters ..................................................................................... 71
Chapter 8 Synaptic Plasticity ................................................................................................. 72
Short-term synaptic plasticity............................................................................................. 72
Long-term synaptic plasticity and behavioral modification in Aplysia ................................... 73
Long-term potential at a hippocampal synapse ................................................................... 75
Mechanisms underlying long-term potentiation .................................................................. 76
Mechanisms underlying long-term depression .................................................................... 77
Spike-timing-dependent plasticity ...................................................................................... 78
Guest lecture the balanced brain: two-photon microscopy of inhibitory synapse formation ...... 80
Two-photon microscopy: focus on synapses ....................................................................... 83
3
, Chapter 1 Studying the Nervous System
Neuron doctrine:
- Neurons are discrete cells and not one continuum
- Neurons communicate via specialized contacts; synapses
- Information passes through the neuron in a certain direction: Dendrites (in) -> Soma ->
Axon (out)
2 types of cells in the brain:
- Nerve cells/neurons
o Electrical signals over long distances (up to one meter)
o by means of electrical action potentials
o Without loss of signal strength
o Computation
o Consist of axon and dendrites
o Axon terminal of presynaptic neuron is adjacent to postsynaptic receptor on
target cell
▪ Communicate via secretion of neurotransmitters (chemical synaps)
▪ Space between pre- and postsynaptic elements = synaptic cleft
o Local circuit neurons (interneurons) have relatively short axons
o Axons convey signals over long distance by action potentials
- Glial cells
o Structural support
o Metabolic support
o Myelin sheath surrounding axons
o Providing scaffolds
o Immune response
o Stem cells (limited in the brain) to repair nervous system damage
▪ Can give rise to new glia and new neurons
o Three types:
▪ Oligodendrocytes
- Wrap myelin around some axons in CNS > higher transmission
speed
▪ Schwann cells
- Wrap myelin around some axons in PNS
▪ Microglial cells
- Macrophages of the brain
Connectivity:
- Convergence: number of inputs
- Divergence: number of outputs/ targets
4
