THEME 2: RISMAN & DAVIS 2013:
FROM SEX ROLES TO GENDER STRUCTURE
(Know the central arguments made by each author in theme 2)
The Birth And Evolution Of Biological Theories For Sex Difference:
1. Endocrinologists, medical doctors with expertise on the production, maintenance and
regulation of hormones have long believed masculinity and femininity were the result of
sex hormones.
2. Further research discovered that the existence of sex hormones didn’t distinguish male
from female, but rather both sexes showed evidence of estrogen and testosterone.
3. It became clear that estrogen and testosterone not only affected reproduction and sex
but also other aspects of the body such as the liver, bones and heart.
4. The possibility that sex hormone directly caused sex differences began to be suspect.
5. Young et al. suggested that sex hormones during gestation create brain differentiation
and thus were indirect causal agents for sex differences.
6. The brain began to be seen as responsible for sexual differentiation.
7. Cooke et al’s. review article concluded that ‘there is ample evidence of sexual
dimorphism in the brain, as sex differences in behavior would require, but there has not
yet been any definitive proof that steroids acting early in the development directly
masculinize the human brain’.
8. Brain sex theories of the 21st century maintain that brains are the intervening link
between sex hormones and gendered behavior.
9. The major deficiency of brain theories of sex differences is that there are few consistent
results across studies, they also depend on inconsistent definitions and measurement of
concepts, and so lack reliability as well.
, The Birth And Evolution Of Social Science Attention To Sex And Gender:
Psychologists used socialization theory to explain how girls and boys became socially
appropriate men and women, husbands and wives. Little research focused on sex or gender,
and almost none on inequality between women and men… this changed as women entered the
academy.
The Psychological Measurement Of Sex Roles:
o Attempts to study sex and gender followed the movement of women into science + the
influence of the 2nd wave feminism.
o Psychologists began to measure sex role attitudes using scales that had been embedded
in personality and employment tests.
o -these measures assumed that masculinity and femininity were OPPOSITE ends
of one dimension, this if a subject was “high” of femininity, she was necessarily
“low” on masculinity.
o This measurement didn’t accurately represent individual personality traits.
o Bem suggested that masculinity and femininity were actually 2 different personality
dimensions. For example, and individual could be high on masculinity and also high on
femininity or low on both m and f.
o Traditional women would be high on f and low on m, and vice versa for men. An
aggressive woman might be low on f and high on m, or high on both f and m.
o Controversy: Focus was put on whether the label ‘androgyny’ (female and male
characteristics) should be defined by similarity on both measures or4 only strong
identification with both m and f with the consensus emerging that only those high on
both should be labelled androgynous.
o Psychologists not longer find the language of masculinity and femininity useful, but
rather suggest that the personality concepts in the scale labelled ‘masculine’ actually
measure efficacy/agency/leadership and the personality concepts in the scale labelled
‘feminine’ actually measure nurturance and empathy.
FROM SEX ROLES TO GENDER STRUCTURE
(Know the central arguments made by each author in theme 2)
The Birth And Evolution Of Biological Theories For Sex Difference:
1. Endocrinologists, medical doctors with expertise on the production, maintenance and
regulation of hormones have long believed masculinity and femininity were the result of
sex hormones.
2. Further research discovered that the existence of sex hormones didn’t distinguish male
from female, but rather both sexes showed evidence of estrogen and testosterone.
3. It became clear that estrogen and testosterone not only affected reproduction and sex
but also other aspects of the body such as the liver, bones and heart.
4. The possibility that sex hormone directly caused sex differences began to be suspect.
5. Young et al. suggested that sex hormones during gestation create brain differentiation
and thus were indirect causal agents for sex differences.
6. The brain began to be seen as responsible for sexual differentiation.
7. Cooke et al’s. review article concluded that ‘there is ample evidence of sexual
dimorphism in the brain, as sex differences in behavior would require, but there has not
yet been any definitive proof that steroids acting early in the development directly
masculinize the human brain’.
8. Brain sex theories of the 21st century maintain that brains are the intervening link
between sex hormones and gendered behavior.
9. The major deficiency of brain theories of sex differences is that there are few consistent
results across studies, they also depend on inconsistent definitions and measurement of
concepts, and so lack reliability as well.
, The Birth And Evolution Of Social Science Attention To Sex And Gender:
Psychologists used socialization theory to explain how girls and boys became socially
appropriate men and women, husbands and wives. Little research focused on sex or gender,
and almost none on inequality between women and men… this changed as women entered the
academy.
The Psychological Measurement Of Sex Roles:
o Attempts to study sex and gender followed the movement of women into science + the
influence of the 2nd wave feminism.
o Psychologists began to measure sex role attitudes using scales that had been embedded
in personality and employment tests.
o -these measures assumed that masculinity and femininity were OPPOSITE ends
of one dimension, this if a subject was “high” of femininity, she was necessarily
“low” on masculinity.
o This measurement didn’t accurately represent individual personality traits.
o Bem suggested that masculinity and femininity were actually 2 different personality
dimensions. For example, and individual could be high on masculinity and also high on
femininity or low on both m and f.
o Traditional women would be high on f and low on m, and vice versa for men. An
aggressive woman might be low on f and high on m, or high on both f and m.
o Controversy: Focus was put on whether the label ‘androgyny’ (female and male
characteristics) should be defined by similarity on both measures or4 only strong
identification with both m and f with the consensus emerging that only those high on
both should be labelled androgynous.
o Psychologists not longer find the language of masculinity and femininity useful, but
rather suggest that the personality concepts in the scale labelled ‘masculine’ actually
measure efficacy/agency/leadership and the personality concepts in the scale labelled
‘feminine’ actually measure nurturance and empathy.
