Problem 1: Early Roots of Psychology
➔ Perspectives about knowledge:
◆ Empiricism:
● knowledge is acquired through external processes (perceptions)
● hard core empiricists argue external processes are enough; while most
empiricist combine cognitive + external processes but believe the latter is
more important
◆ Nativism:
● knowledge is innate & present from birth
● human characteristics can be explained by heredity
● most nativists are hardcore rationalists
◆ Rationalism:
● knowledge arises through internal processes (thinking & logical
reasoning)
● hard core rationalists argue perception is not necessary and internal
processes are enough; while most rationalists combine internal cognitive
processes + sensory perceptions but believe the first is more important
➔ Perspectives about body-mind:
◆ Dualism: two realities exist– the reality that we perceive (physical world) and the
one we cannot (the world of ideas)
◆ Monism: there is only one form of reality; physical (materialism) or mental
(idealism)
● Idealism: the reality is only the world of ideas, not the physical world;
everything can be explained by mental processes in the mind
● Materialism: the reality is only the physical world; everything can be
explained by matter including psychological processes (reductionist
approach)
➔ Plato:
◆ nativist
◆ rationalist: forms (real knowledge, ideas) are achieved through rational thinking
◆ idealist: the reality consists of forms (ideas)
◆ dualist: distinguishes between body and mind— mind/soul contains true
knowledge and is immortal; body is imperfect and mortal
,◆ Knowledge:
● Plato created the foundations of epistemology, the philosophy of
knowledge
● must always be true, regardless of time and place
● must be rationally justifiable— i.g. geometric theorems are justifiable
through logics, therefore True
● not obtained through perception of physical objects, but through
knowledge of forms
◆ Two worlds:
● world of knowledge (intelligible world): consists of ideas/forms, real
knowledge, universal
● world of appearances (world of opinions): our senses are inaccurate, thus
prevent us from acquiring ‘real’ knowledge
◆ Theory of forms:
● everything in the physical world is a manifestation of a pure form/idea
that exists abstractly
● sensory perception— result of the interaction between pure forms and
the matter
● as matter changes constantly, the result of this interaction is less perfect
than the pure forms
◆ Forms (idea):
● exist outside the human mind and the physical world; fixed, universal,
eternal
● i.g. all beautiful objects resemble the form of Beauty, all good actions
resemble the form of Good
● these abstract notions are not subjective; if two people disagree on
whether an object is beautiful or not; it means that one of them doesn’t
know the Form of Beauty
● forms are difficult to describe because they cannot be physically
observed— Plato used metaphors to explain the notion of forms
○ the simile of the sun:
◆ the form of Good in the intelligible world is what sun is to
the physical world
◆ the Form of Good illuminates all the other Forms and
makes it possible for reason to know them
,○ the metaphor of the line/analogy of the divided line:
◆ world of appearances & opinions
● imagining: lowest level, i.g. representational art—
banned in his utopia the Republic
● belief: 2nd lowest
◆ intelligible world & opinions= intelligence/knowledge,
thinking
● with thinking, we move from mere opinion to real
knowledge
◆ world of appearances & objects= visible things, images
◆ Highest level: intelligible world & objects= The Good,
Forms, mathematical objects
○ allegory of the cave:
◆ prison of culture
◆ the shadows on the cave are our sensory perceptions that
provide unreliable images of reality (lowest level of the
line)
◆ the prisoner who escapes and sees the sun and the objects
acquires real knowledge— the abstract forms responsible
for the physical world (highest level of the line)
◆ with effort, we can be freed from our ignorance; however
it is a dangerous and difficult journey which only a few
elite could manage
◆ an allegory of Socrates’ life
, ○ the ladder of love: the path to the form of beauty is the easiest
one from the physical world to the world of forms
◆ physical love: lust, sexual love; even though it’s the first
step to reach the love of Beauty, it must be abandoned to
reach the higher forms
◆ love of souls: higher than love of bodies
◆ general love: love of everybody
◆ love for art and philosophy— highest level of the ladder
● Learning:
○ nativism
○ souls are born in heaven and everyone sees the Forms before they
are born
○ learning is actually remembering the knowledge from a previous
life— reincarnation
○ good people retain more knowledge with them after death than
bad people
○ explains the Socratic method— asking questions to lead people to
the answers
● three components of the soul:
○ rational soul:
➔ Perspectives about knowledge:
◆ Empiricism:
● knowledge is acquired through external processes (perceptions)
● hard core empiricists argue external processes are enough; while most
empiricist combine cognitive + external processes but believe the latter is
more important
◆ Nativism:
● knowledge is innate & present from birth
● human characteristics can be explained by heredity
● most nativists are hardcore rationalists
◆ Rationalism:
● knowledge arises through internal processes (thinking & logical
reasoning)
● hard core rationalists argue perception is not necessary and internal
processes are enough; while most rationalists combine internal cognitive
processes + sensory perceptions but believe the first is more important
➔ Perspectives about body-mind:
◆ Dualism: two realities exist– the reality that we perceive (physical world) and the
one we cannot (the world of ideas)
◆ Monism: there is only one form of reality; physical (materialism) or mental
(idealism)
● Idealism: the reality is only the world of ideas, not the physical world;
everything can be explained by mental processes in the mind
● Materialism: the reality is only the physical world; everything can be
explained by matter including psychological processes (reductionist
approach)
➔ Plato:
◆ nativist
◆ rationalist: forms (real knowledge, ideas) are achieved through rational thinking
◆ idealist: the reality consists of forms (ideas)
◆ dualist: distinguishes between body and mind— mind/soul contains true
knowledge and is immortal; body is imperfect and mortal
,◆ Knowledge:
● Plato created the foundations of epistemology, the philosophy of
knowledge
● must always be true, regardless of time and place
● must be rationally justifiable— i.g. geometric theorems are justifiable
through logics, therefore True
● not obtained through perception of physical objects, but through
knowledge of forms
◆ Two worlds:
● world of knowledge (intelligible world): consists of ideas/forms, real
knowledge, universal
● world of appearances (world of opinions): our senses are inaccurate, thus
prevent us from acquiring ‘real’ knowledge
◆ Theory of forms:
● everything in the physical world is a manifestation of a pure form/idea
that exists abstractly
● sensory perception— result of the interaction between pure forms and
the matter
● as matter changes constantly, the result of this interaction is less perfect
than the pure forms
◆ Forms (idea):
● exist outside the human mind and the physical world; fixed, universal,
eternal
● i.g. all beautiful objects resemble the form of Beauty, all good actions
resemble the form of Good
● these abstract notions are not subjective; if two people disagree on
whether an object is beautiful or not; it means that one of them doesn’t
know the Form of Beauty
● forms are difficult to describe because they cannot be physically
observed— Plato used metaphors to explain the notion of forms
○ the simile of the sun:
◆ the form of Good in the intelligible world is what sun is to
the physical world
◆ the Form of Good illuminates all the other Forms and
makes it possible for reason to know them
,○ the metaphor of the line/analogy of the divided line:
◆ world of appearances & opinions
● imagining: lowest level, i.g. representational art—
banned in his utopia the Republic
● belief: 2nd lowest
◆ intelligible world & opinions= intelligence/knowledge,
thinking
● with thinking, we move from mere opinion to real
knowledge
◆ world of appearances & objects= visible things, images
◆ Highest level: intelligible world & objects= The Good,
Forms, mathematical objects
○ allegory of the cave:
◆ prison of culture
◆ the shadows on the cave are our sensory perceptions that
provide unreliable images of reality (lowest level of the
line)
◆ the prisoner who escapes and sees the sun and the objects
acquires real knowledge— the abstract forms responsible
for the physical world (highest level of the line)
◆ with effort, we can be freed from our ignorance; however
it is a dangerous and difficult journey which only a few
elite could manage
◆ an allegory of Socrates’ life
, ○ the ladder of love: the path to the form of beauty is the easiest
one from the physical world to the world of forms
◆ physical love: lust, sexual love; even though it’s the first
step to reach the love of Beauty, it must be abandoned to
reach the higher forms
◆ love of souls: higher than love of bodies
◆ general love: love of everybody
◆ love for art and philosophy— highest level of the ladder
● Learning:
○ nativism
○ souls are born in heaven and everyone sees the Forms before they
are born
○ learning is actually remembering the knowledge from a previous
life— reincarnation
○ good people retain more knowledge with them after death than
bad people
○ explains the Socratic method— asking questions to lead people to
the answers
● three components of the soul:
○ rational soul:
