China: Origins and Consequences of Revolution
China’s rise and fall ought to be viewed in parallel conjuncture with Japanese prominence and
demise
1842-1860: Qing China was forced to sign a variety of unequal/ unfair treaties
1850-75: China suffered several internal rebellions and external pressures (e.g., the introduction
of Treaty-Port systems by Western powers on China)
China responded to crises through reform and change
Chinese reforms were not as deep or broad as the change introduced in Japan during the Meiji
period
There is no Qing equivalent to the Meiji reforms
Chinese reforms were mainly military-focused
China loses at the hands of Japan in 1895
In the aftermath of defeat, China began the Xinzheng Reforms after 1895 to reform ministerial
structures, education and financial arrangements
Modernization = difficult process
Chinese changes were opposed by smaller provinces which had introduced their own reforms
and by Han Chinese nationalists
Han Chinese nationalists wanted to rid China of Manchu rule
1911-12 Revolution saw the fall of the Qing dynasty and the rise of a republic by February 1912;
the Revolution is often viewed as a nationalist event which is then hijacked reactionary forces
such as president Yuan Shikai (Shikai was the strongest military leader in China and was
brought in as a strongman)
The idea that the Revolution was nationalist was more of a concept adopted by later politicians
to essentially explain the later leadership of China under men such as Yuan Shikai
There was a centre-periphery struggle during the Revolution due to a battle over who would
control the direction of modernization
1916-27= “warlord era” and sees China become fractured internally at the expense of
international recognition and respect
Removal of Qing dynasty does not give way to a new unified and strong state
Weakened post-1911 China led to the May Fourth movement
1919- China was expected to make a concession to Japan under the Versailles Treaty which led
to many anti-Western imperialist protests
GMD and CCP viewed May the Fourth movement as a defining historical moment
GMD, under Sun Yat-Sen, sought to tap into the nationalist sentiments of China
The Soviet Union in China also sought to use anti-Western emotions to further spread the
Bolshevik cause
First United Front: Under Comintern sponsorship, the CCP and GMD united to bring about a
nationalist revolution in China
GMD reorganized under a Leninist structure/ Leninist principles
GMD had its own military too; Guangzhou effectively became a military base of power
Upon Sun’s death in 1925, Jiang Jieshi emerged as a new leader and sought to militarily unite
China under the GMD
China’s rise and fall ought to be viewed in parallel conjuncture with Japanese prominence and
demise
1842-1860: Qing China was forced to sign a variety of unequal/ unfair treaties
1850-75: China suffered several internal rebellions and external pressures (e.g., the introduction
of Treaty-Port systems by Western powers on China)
China responded to crises through reform and change
Chinese reforms were not as deep or broad as the change introduced in Japan during the Meiji
period
There is no Qing equivalent to the Meiji reforms
Chinese reforms were mainly military-focused
China loses at the hands of Japan in 1895
In the aftermath of defeat, China began the Xinzheng Reforms after 1895 to reform ministerial
structures, education and financial arrangements
Modernization = difficult process
Chinese changes were opposed by smaller provinces which had introduced their own reforms
and by Han Chinese nationalists
Han Chinese nationalists wanted to rid China of Manchu rule
1911-12 Revolution saw the fall of the Qing dynasty and the rise of a republic by February 1912;
the Revolution is often viewed as a nationalist event which is then hijacked reactionary forces
such as president Yuan Shikai (Shikai was the strongest military leader in China and was
brought in as a strongman)
The idea that the Revolution was nationalist was more of a concept adopted by later politicians
to essentially explain the later leadership of China under men such as Yuan Shikai
There was a centre-periphery struggle during the Revolution due to a battle over who would
control the direction of modernization
1916-27= “warlord era” and sees China become fractured internally at the expense of
international recognition and respect
Removal of Qing dynasty does not give way to a new unified and strong state
Weakened post-1911 China led to the May Fourth movement
1919- China was expected to make a concession to Japan under the Versailles Treaty which led
to many anti-Western imperialist protests
GMD and CCP viewed May the Fourth movement as a defining historical moment
GMD, under Sun Yat-Sen, sought to tap into the nationalist sentiments of China
The Soviet Union in China also sought to use anti-Western emotions to further spread the
Bolshevik cause
First United Front: Under Comintern sponsorship, the CCP and GMD united to bring about a
nationalist revolution in China
GMD reorganized under a Leninist structure/ Leninist principles
GMD had its own military too; Guangzhou effectively became a military base of power
Upon Sun’s death in 1925, Jiang Jieshi emerged as a new leader and sought to militarily unite
China under the GMD
