Lecture 1: Theories in Developmental Psychology & Introduction to Psychological
Assessment
Theories in Developmental Psychology:
Theory: a coherent set of ideas, hypotheses and explanations.
- Descriptive
- Explanatory
- Predictive
- Makes assumptions
- Is a reduction of reality
- Is generalizable
- Is testable
- A theory will be replaced when ) it is falsified on the basis of observations ) a new theory
explains the observations better
- A theory is tested by following the empirical cycle:
o Observation > induction: coming up with a theory and deriving a hypothesis >
deduction: making specific predictions > testing > evaluation > observation
- Minor theories: theories about a single phenomenon, e.g. learning to see depth
- Major theories: broad theories, e.g. development of cognition
A good developmental theory:
- Relates to ontogeny (development)
- Focuses on change over time
- Explains the emergence of new properties
- Is preferably pedagogically useful
Dimensions in developmental theories:
- Nature vs nurture:
o Nature/endogenous: knowledge is innate and gets expressed during the course of
development
o Nurture/exogenous: only learning mechanisms are innate, all the rest of
development is determined by the environment
o Nature & nurture: both innate predispositions and the environment shape
development
- Continuous vs stages:
o Continuous: development is gradual; children are not qualitatively different from
adults; children lack experience
o Stages: development occurs in transitions; children are qualitatively different from
adults
o Continuous & stages: development is gradual; but some behaviours dominate
temporarily and that’s why development appears to occur stagewise
- Passive vs active
o Passive: child plays a passive role; development occurs automatically
o Active: child plays an active role in its own development; constructs its own
knowledge
o Passive & active: some processes develop automatically; other processes need an
active role of the child
Motor development:
, - Milestones motor development: sequence is the same for everybody; differences in timing
- Maturational theory of Gesell: biologically directed maturation; the same developmental
patterns independent of environmental input.
o Dimensions: nature, stages, passive.
o Key points:
Maturation of central nervous system determines the development of the
child, behavioural development follows
Cephalocaudal trend = from head to foot
Proximodistal trend = from centre of body to periphery
Differences in child’s temperament play important role in pace of
development
Role of parents is to provide the right environment (when the child is ready,
no pushing)
o Criticisms:
Not all children follow the same pattern, e.g. backward crawling and butt
sliding, e.g. skipping the stage of crawling and immediately standing up
The theory does not necessarily generalize to all cultures, e.g. cultures in
which children sit on the mother’s back, children develop differently
Environment can play a guiding role: e.g.
Research McGraw: environment can shape motor development.
Twin study with Jimmy and Johnny: Johnny received extra training in
swimming, skating and climbing, Jimmy did not; his development
was accelerated.
o Dimensions: nature & nurture (emphasis on nurture), stages,
passive.
Dynamic systems theory (DST): Esther Thelen. Development is a complex interaction between
properties of the system and environment.
- Dimensions: nature & nurture, non-linear continuous development towards a temporary
balance, active.
- A system is a collection of components that are interrelated (e.g. a body, a family, a flock of
birds)
- A dynamic system is a collection of changing components that influence each other.
Describes how a stage changes into another state over time. An important is self-
organization (flock of birds who do not bump into each other). The effects are non-linear:
small changes in one variable may bring qualitative changes in the whole pattern > Same for
development.
- Motor development is shaped by:
o Development of central nervous system (nature)
o Development of motor skills (nature)
o Environment (context and task)
Physical properties Change in physical
properties
… And so on repeatedly.
Change in
Action
action
Change in
Environment
environment
, Introduction to Psychological Assessment:
Psychological assessment: collection and integration of psychological data in order to make a
diagnosis in the field of psychology, using tools such as tests, interviews, observation, and specifically
designed equipment.
- Knowledge:
o Psychology & psychopathology
o Aspects of psychometrics (measurements) and decision making
o Types of instruments
o Ethics
o Diagnostic process
- Skills:
o Administration and scoring of instruments
o Interpretation of instruments
o Observation
o Communication
o Written report
- Milestones in the history of psychological assessment (Gregory Chapter):
o 2200 BC: “tests” to measure fitness for working for Chinese emperor
o Around 18th century: the outside is an indication of the inside. E.g.
Physiognomy
Phrenology (Gall)
o Late 19th century: “brass instruments”: Perception and response speed are indicators
of intelligence (Wundt, Galton, Cattell)
o Early 20th century:
First intelligence tests as we know them today (Binet, Simon). Testing
whether children needed special care in school.
Main reason for developing the Binet scale: to help identify children with
mental retardation.
Group tests, army recruits, educational testing
e.g. SAT’s in America
First specific aptitude tests (factor analysis), e.g.
Spearman: general intelligence
Thurstone: specific parts of intelligence
Personality assessment by projective testing
E.g. Rorschach test
Structured personality tests, e.g.
MMPI
Big 5 dimensions of personality (OCEAN):
1. Openness to experience
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism
Decision-making in psychological assessment: several biases/pitfalls:
- Fundamental attribution error: the tendency of others to overestimate the influence of
dispositions (traits) and to underestimate the influence of situational factors (states, reaction
to situation).
o Possible solution: paying attention to circumstances
, - Confirmation bias: only searching for and paying attention to information that is consistent
with one’s own conclusion; ignoring or selectively interpreting hypotheses, beliefs and
conflicting information.
o Possible solution: actively look for information that conflicts with you own
conclusions, beliefs and hypotheses.
- Salience effect: giving more weight to striking information than non-striking information
when drawing conclusions.
o Possible solution: objective measurements, awareness
- Contrast error: general tendency to judge others in a manner opposite from the way in
which one perceives himself/herself due to a perceived difference between self and others
o Possible solution: objective measurements, awareness
- Illusory correlation: perceiving links between tests and own conclusion, which do not exist
empirically.
o Possible solution: scientific approach
- Blind spot bias: the tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people and to be less
able to recognize biases in oneself than in others.
o Possible solution: scientific approach, awareness
General solutions for biases:
o Awareness of the limitations of clinical judgment
o Include circumstances
o Think about verification and falsification
o Take specific instruments that are as reliable and valid as possible
o Think about whether only 1 instrument is sufficient
o Stay critical
o Follow the hypothesis testing model
Diagnostic process:
- Basic questions: recognition & explanation
o Recognition: what is going on?
Inventory, description
Organize, classify
DSM-5: classification manual
Classification is part of diagnostics
o Explanation: why do the problems exist and why aren’t they easily solved?
Locus: person/situation
Nature of control: is there a cause and reason?
Synchronous = here and now / diachronous = what preceded it (e.g. youth?)
Induced or persistent conditions
- Basic questions: prediction
o Prediction: development of problem behaviour in the future?
Link predictor (different tests when possible) to research, experience
E.g. forensic diagnostics: recidivism, leave of absence?
- Basic questions: indication & evaluation
o Indication for treatment: what help is needed and appropriate?
this depends on answers to questions of recognition and/or explanation. E.g.
some clients are open to medicine, some are not.
there is knowledge needed about:
treatments, practitioners
relative usefulness
acceptance of advice by the client
o Evaluation: result of psychological assessment
Assessment
Theories in Developmental Psychology:
Theory: a coherent set of ideas, hypotheses and explanations.
- Descriptive
- Explanatory
- Predictive
- Makes assumptions
- Is a reduction of reality
- Is generalizable
- Is testable
- A theory will be replaced when ) it is falsified on the basis of observations ) a new theory
explains the observations better
- A theory is tested by following the empirical cycle:
o Observation > induction: coming up with a theory and deriving a hypothesis >
deduction: making specific predictions > testing > evaluation > observation
- Minor theories: theories about a single phenomenon, e.g. learning to see depth
- Major theories: broad theories, e.g. development of cognition
A good developmental theory:
- Relates to ontogeny (development)
- Focuses on change over time
- Explains the emergence of new properties
- Is preferably pedagogically useful
Dimensions in developmental theories:
- Nature vs nurture:
o Nature/endogenous: knowledge is innate and gets expressed during the course of
development
o Nurture/exogenous: only learning mechanisms are innate, all the rest of
development is determined by the environment
o Nature & nurture: both innate predispositions and the environment shape
development
- Continuous vs stages:
o Continuous: development is gradual; children are not qualitatively different from
adults; children lack experience
o Stages: development occurs in transitions; children are qualitatively different from
adults
o Continuous & stages: development is gradual; but some behaviours dominate
temporarily and that’s why development appears to occur stagewise
- Passive vs active
o Passive: child plays a passive role; development occurs automatically
o Active: child plays an active role in its own development; constructs its own
knowledge
o Passive & active: some processes develop automatically; other processes need an
active role of the child
Motor development:
, - Milestones motor development: sequence is the same for everybody; differences in timing
- Maturational theory of Gesell: biologically directed maturation; the same developmental
patterns independent of environmental input.
o Dimensions: nature, stages, passive.
o Key points:
Maturation of central nervous system determines the development of the
child, behavioural development follows
Cephalocaudal trend = from head to foot
Proximodistal trend = from centre of body to periphery
Differences in child’s temperament play important role in pace of
development
Role of parents is to provide the right environment (when the child is ready,
no pushing)
o Criticisms:
Not all children follow the same pattern, e.g. backward crawling and butt
sliding, e.g. skipping the stage of crawling and immediately standing up
The theory does not necessarily generalize to all cultures, e.g. cultures in
which children sit on the mother’s back, children develop differently
Environment can play a guiding role: e.g.
Research McGraw: environment can shape motor development.
Twin study with Jimmy and Johnny: Johnny received extra training in
swimming, skating and climbing, Jimmy did not; his development
was accelerated.
o Dimensions: nature & nurture (emphasis on nurture), stages,
passive.
Dynamic systems theory (DST): Esther Thelen. Development is a complex interaction between
properties of the system and environment.
- Dimensions: nature & nurture, non-linear continuous development towards a temporary
balance, active.
- A system is a collection of components that are interrelated (e.g. a body, a family, a flock of
birds)
- A dynamic system is a collection of changing components that influence each other.
Describes how a stage changes into another state over time. An important is self-
organization (flock of birds who do not bump into each other). The effects are non-linear:
small changes in one variable may bring qualitative changes in the whole pattern > Same for
development.
- Motor development is shaped by:
o Development of central nervous system (nature)
o Development of motor skills (nature)
o Environment (context and task)
Physical properties Change in physical
properties
… And so on repeatedly.
Change in
Action
action
Change in
Environment
environment
, Introduction to Psychological Assessment:
Psychological assessment: collection and integration of psychological data in order to make a
diagnosis in the field of psychology, using tools such as tests, interviews, observation, and specifically
designed equipment.
- Knowledge:
o Psychology & psychopathology
o Aspects of psychometrics (measurements) and decision making
o Types of instruments
o Ethics
o Diagnostic process
- Skills:
o Administration and scoring of instruments
o Interpretation of instruments
o Observation
o Communication
o Written report
- Milestones in the history of psychological assessment (Gregory Chapter):
o 2200 BC: “tests” to measure fitness for working for Chinese emperor
o Around 18th century: the outside is an indication of the inside. E.g.
Physiognomy
Phrenology (Gall)
o Late 19th century: “brass instruments”: Perception and response speed are indicators
of intelligence (Wundt, Galton, Cattell)
o Early 20th century:
First intelligence tests as we know them today (Binet, Simon). Testing
whether children needed special care in school.
Main reason for developing the Binet scale: to help identify children with
mental retardation.
Group tests, army recruits, educational testing
e.g. SAT’s in America
First specific aptitude tests (factor analysis), e.g.
Spearman: general intelligence
Thurstone: specific parts of intelligence
Personality assessment by projective testing
E.g. Rorschach test
Structured personality tests, e.g.
MMPI
Big 5 dimensions of personality (OCEAN):
1. Openness to experience
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism
Decision-making in psychological assessment: several biases/pitfalls:
- Fundamental attribution error: the tendency of others to overestimate the influence of
dispositions (traits) and to underestimate the influence of situational factors (states, reaction
to situation).
o Possible solution: paying attention to circumstances
, - Confirmation bias: only searching for and paying attention to information that is consistent
with one’s own conclusion; ignoring or selectively interpreting hypotheses, beliefs and
conflicting information.
o Possible solution: actively look for information that conflicts with you own
conclusions, beliefs and hypotheses.
- Salience effect: giving more weight to striking information than non-striking information
when drawing conclusions.
o Possible solution: objective measurements, awareness
- Contrast error: general tendency to judge others in a manner opposite from the way in
which one perceives himself/herself due to a perceived difference between self and others
o Possible solution: objective measurements, awareness
- Illusory correlation: perceiving links between tests and own conclusion, which do not exist
empirically.
o Possible solution: scientific approach
- Blind spot bias: the tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people and to be less
able to recognize biases in oneself than in others.
o Possible solution: scientific approach, awareness
General solutions for biases:
o Awareness of the limitations of clinical judgment
o Include circumstances
o Think about verification and falsification
o Take specific instruments that are as reliable and valid as possible
o Think about whether only 1 instrument is sufficient
o Stay critical
o Follow the hypothesis testing model
Diagnostic process:
- Basic questions: recognition & explanation
o Recognition: what is going on?
Inventory, description
Organize, classify
DSM-5: classification manual
Classification is part of diagnostics
o Explanation: why do the problems exist and why aren’t they easily solved?
Locus: person/situation
Nature of control: is there a cause and reason?
Synchronous = here and now / diachronous = what preceded it (e.g. youth?)
Induced or persistent conditions
- Basic questions: prediction
o Prediction: development of problem behaviour in the future?
Link predictor (different tests when possible) to research, experience
E.g. forensic diagnostics: recidivism, leave of absence?
- Basic questions: indication & evaluation
o Indication for treatment: what help is needed and appropriate?
this depends on answers to questions of recognition and/or explanation. E.g.
some clients are open to medicine, some are not.
there is knowledge needed about:
treatments, practitioners
relative usefulness
acceptance of advice by the client
o Evaluation: result of psychological assessment
