PART 1
© Nevarpp/iStockphoto/Getty Images
Introduction to
Criminology
CHAPTER 1 Crime and Criminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CHAPTER 2 The Incidence of Crime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1
,
,© Tithi Luadthong/Shutterstock
CHAPTER 1
Crime and Criminology
Crime and the fear of crime have permeated the fabric of American life.
—Warren E. Burger, Chief Justice, U.S. Supreme Court1
Collective fear stimulates herd instinct, and tends to produce ferocity toward those who are not regarded as
members of the herd.
—Bertrand Russell2
OBJECTIVES
• Define criminology, and understand how this field of study relates to other social science disciplines. Pg. 4
• Understand the meaning of scientific theory and its relationship to research and policy. Pg. 8
• Recognize how the media shape public perceptions of crime. Pg. 19
• Know the criteria for establishing causation, and identify the attributes of good research. Pg. 13
• Define criminal
Understand the politics of criminology and the importance of social context. Pg. 18
• Describe the various
law, and understand the conflict and consensus perspectives on the law. Pg. 5
• schools of criminological theory and the explanations that they provide. Pg. 9
Introduction
of the public’s concern about the safety of their com-
munities, crime is a perennial political issue that can-
Crime is a social phenomenon that commands the didates for political office are compelled to address.
attention and energy of the American public. When Dealing with crime commands a substantial por-
crime statistics are announced or a particular crime tion of the country’s tax dollars. Criminal justice sys-
goes viral, the public demands that “something be tem operations (police, courts, prisons) cost American
done.” American citizens are concerned about their taxpayers over $270 billion annually. That equates to
own safety and that of their families and their posses- about $900 per citizen.4 Much of this cost is due to
sions. For example, Gallup regularly polls Americans the use of prisons and jails. Despite making up less
on whether they feel as though crime in the United than 5% of the global population, the United States
States has gotten better or worse in the past year. In now holds almost 25% of the world’s inmates.5
almost every poll since 1989, a majority of people felt As these statistics indicate, crime is an important
that crime had increased.3 This was true even in years social issue. Further, how policymakers deal with
when actual crime rates declined substantially. Because crime (via crime policy) can have enormous social
3
, 4 Chapter 1 Crime and Criminology
and financial implications. Indeed, the high incarcer-
ation rates in America are rooted in policy changes
made by states and the federal government through-
out the 1980s and 1990s. A basic tenet of this text
is that a combination of theory and research can
help provide direction to crime policy. The chapters
in this book attempt to organize ideas in order to
explain criminal behavior. This includes the factors
that contribute to crime and the social reactions to
crime. In short, this book explores the discipline of
criminology.
What Is Criminology?
Simply put, criminology is the scientific study of
crime. More broadly, Edwin Sutherland described
criminology as the study of lawmaking, law-breaking,
and the response to law-breaking.6 Some scholars
further distinguish criminal justice from criminol-
ogy. Here, Sutherland’s definition is subdivided into
two related fields, where criminology focuses on
law-breaking (i.e., the nature, extent, and causes of Norms often change over time. Not long ago, tattoos
crime), and criminal justice focuses on the response were considered a mark of deviance.
(i.e., policing, courts, and corrections) to criminal
behavior. Scholars interested in criminal justice, for
example, may study the causes and consequences Criminology and Academics
of prison crowding or the effectiveness of differ- Until recently, people with an academic interest in
ent p olicing models. Of course, there is a relation- criminal behavior sought degrees in social science dis-
ship between criminology and criminal justice. The ciplines such as anthropology, psychology, econom-
response to crime depends largely on one’s view of ics, law, political science, ethics, and sociology; thus,
the causes of crime. For this reason, many criminolo- a student might earn a degree in sociology with an
gists work in both of these areas. emphasis on deviance and crime. Although some peo-
Another discipline related to criminology is the ple still study crime through other disciplines, most
study of deviance. A “deviant” is anyone who violates universities now offer degrees in criminology or crim-
social norms. Norms are guidelines that define for inal justice. Moreover, many universities have sepa-
members of a society the types of behaviors that are rate criminology departments, divisions, or schools.
appropriate or inappropriate in certain situations; In that sense, criminology has emerged as a distinct
they are classified as folkways, mores, and laws, based social science discipline.
largely on the response to their violation.7 Folkways This emergence has been partial, however, and a
are norms against actions (e.g., nose picking) that bit awkward. In part, this is because unlike other social
may evoke a snicker or some teasing as a response. science disciplines, criminology is organized around
Violations of a society’s mores (e.g., teen pregnancy) a class of behaviors (crime) rather than a particular
evoke a more serious response from others. Laws are way of understanding these behaviors. Social science
norms that have been codified, and the response to disciplines tend to be organized around common
violations comes from formal government agencies. assumptions, guiding insights, and specific research
Therefore, although some deviant behavior is crim- methodologies.8 For example, psychologists generally
inal, deviance can also include acts (e.g., violating seek to understand the mental processes that explain
gender norms, cheating on an exam) that are not human behavior, while sociologists emphasize the role
defined as crimes. Deviance scholars are often inter- of social institutions and processes. Within any social
ested in how deviant behaviors come to be criminal- science discipline, “crime” is only one type of human
ized; that is, they focus on the “lawmaking” aspect of behavior that attracts interest. A psychologist might
Sutherland’s definition. also be interested in intelligence, a political scientist
© Nevarpp/iStockphoto/Getty Images
Introduction to
Criminology
CHAPTER 1 Crime and Criminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CHAPTER 2 The Incidence of Crime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1
,
,© Tithi Luadthong/Shutterstock
CHAPTER 1
Crime and Criminology
Crime and the fear of crime have permeated the fabric of American life.
—Warren E. Burger, Chief Justice, U.S. Supreme Court1
Collective fear stimulates herd instinct, and tends to produce ferocity toward those who are not regarded as
members of the herd.
—Bertrand Russell2
OBJECTIVES
• Define criminology, and understand how this field of study relates to other social science disciplines. Pg. 4
• Understand the meaning of scientific theory and its relationship to research and policy. Pg. 8
• Recognize how the media shape public perceptions of crime. Pg. 19
• Know the criteria for establishing causation, and identify the attributes of good research. Pg. 13
• Define criminal
Understand the politics of criminology and the importance of social context. Pg. 18
• Describe the various
law, and understand the conflict and consensus perspectives on the law. Pg. 5
• schools of criminological theory and the explanations that they provide. Pg. 9
Introduction
of the public’s concern about the safety of their com-
munities, crime is a perennial political issue that can-
Crime is a social phenomenon that commands the didates for political office are compelled to address.
attention and energy of the American public. When Dealing with crime commands a substantial por-
crime statistics are announced or a particular crime tion of the country’s tax dollars. Criminal justice sys-
goes viral, the public demands that “something be tem operations (police, courts, prisons) cost American
done.” American citizens are concerned about their taxpayers over $270 billion annually. That equates to
own safety and that of their families and their posses- about $900 per citizen.4 Much of this cost is due to
sions. For example, Gallup regularly polls Americans the use of prisons and jails. Despite making up less
on whether they feel as though crime in the United than 5% of the global population, the United States
States has gotten better or worse in the past year. In now holds almost 25% of the world’s inmates.5
almost every poll since 1989, a majority of people felt As these statistics indicate, crime is an important
that crime had increased.3 This was true even in years social issue. Further, how policymakers deal with
when actual crime rates declined substantially. Because crime (via crime policy) can have enormous social
3
, 4 Chapter 1 Crime and Criminology
and financial implications. Indeed, the high incarcer-
ation rates in America are rooted in policy changes
made by states and the federal government through-
out the 1980s and 1990s. A basic tenet of this text
is that a combination of theory and research can
help provide direction to crime policy. The chapters
in this book attempt to organize ideas in order to
explain criminal behavior. This includes the factors
that contribute to crime and the social reactions to
crime. In short, this book explores the discipline of
criminology.
What Is Criminology?
Simply put, criminology is the scientific study of
crime. More broadly, Edwin Sutherland described
criminology as the study of lawmaking, law-breaking,
and the response to law-breaking.6 Some scholars
further distinguish criminal justice from criminol-
ogy. Here, Sutherland’s definition is subdivided into
two related fields, where criminology focuses on
law-breaking (i.e., the nature, extent, and causes of Norms often change over time. Not long ago, tattoos
crime), and criminal justice focuses on the response were considered a mark of deviance.
(i.e., policing, courts, and corrections) to criminal
behavior. Scholars interested in criminal justice, for
example, may study the causes and consequences Criminology and Academics
of prison crowding or the effectiveness of differ- Until recently, people with an academic interest in
ent p olicing models. Of course, there is a relation- criminal behavior sought degrees in social science dis-
ship between criminology and criminal justice. The ciplines such as anthropology, psychology, econom-
response to crime depends largely on one’s view of ics, law, political science, ethics, and sociology; thus,
the causes of crime. For this reason, many criminolo- a student might earn a degree in sociology with an
gists work in both of these areas. emphasis on deviance and crime. Although some peo-
Another discipline related to criminology is the ple still study crime through other disciplines, most
study of deviance. A “deviant” is anyone who violates universities now offer degrees in criminology or crim-
social norms. Norms are guidelines that define for inal justice. Moreover, many universities have sepa-
members of a society the types of behaviors that are rate criminology departments, divisions, or schools.
appropriate or inappropriate in certain situations; In that sense, criminology has emerged as a distinct
they are classified as folkways, mores, and laws, based social science discipline.
largely on the response to their violation.7 Folkways This emergence has been partial, however, and a
are norms against actions (e.g., nose picking) that bit awkward. In part, this is because unlike other social
may evoke a snicker or some teasing as a response. science disciplines, criminology is organized around
Violations of a society’s mores (e.g., teen pregnancy) a class of behaviors (crime) rather than a particular
evoke a more serious response from others. Laws are way of understanding these behaviors. Social science
norms that have been codified, and the response to disciplines tend to be organized around common
violations comes from formal government agencies. assumptions, guiding insights, and specific research
Therefore, although some deviant behavior is crim- methodologies.8 For example, psychologists generally
inal, deviance can also include acts (e.g., violating seek to understand the mental processes that explain
gender norms, cheating on an exam) that are not human behavior, while sociologists emphasize the role
defined as crimes. Deviance scholars are often inter- of social institutions and processes. Within any social
ested in how deviant behaviors come to be criminal- science discipline, “crime” is only one type of human
ized; that is, they focus on the “lawmaking” aspect of behavior that attracts interest. A psychologist might
Sutherland’s definition. also be interested in intelligence, a political scientist
