Only Rights Can Stop the Wrongs
The relationship between decriminalization and legalization of sex work and female sex
workers’ safety in Aotearoa New Zealand and the Netherlands
Name Jana van Geest
Student number S1498037
University Leiden University, Faculty of Law
MSc Comparative Criminal Justice
Supervisor Dr. Miranda Boone
Second reader Dr. Adriano Martufi
Word count 14.376
, 2
Acknowledgment
I would be remiss if I did not take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude to the people
who made this thesis possible. First, my supervisor, Dr. Miranda Boone, who was instrumental
during these past few months. Her continuous encouragement pushed me to create the thesis
before you, of which I am incredibly proud, and which would be nowhere near where it is today
without her insightful feedback. Secondly, I would like to thank Dr. Adriano Martufi, without
whom I would still be afraid to kill my darlings. Next, this thesis would have been impossible
without the incredible help of all respondents, in Aotearoa New Zealand as well as the
Netherlands. I am profoundly grateful for the open and honest conversations you were all
willing to have with me. Lastly, I wish to thank the New Zealand Prostitutes’ Collective, and
Dame Catherine Healy in particular, who brought me in touch with many of the aforementioned
respondents and was hugely helpful from the start.
, 3
Abstract
In 2003, Aotearoa New Zealand became the first country to decriminalize sex work when it
implemented the Prostitution Reform Act (PRA). To this day, the New Zealand model is hailed
for its evidence-based approach to sex work legislation. The Netherlands, on the other hand,
opted for a legalization policy when it lifted the ban on brothels in 2000. Despite popular
misconceptions concerning the presumed similarity of these two approaches, these two models
evoke unmistakably different perceptions concerning the safety of sex workers. Moreover, this
thesis shows that what starts out as the regulation of prostitution can develop into de facto
repression. Emphasis is placed on which mechanisms within prostitution policy factor into the
safety of sex workers themselves and explanations for the distinct differences found between
these two models are provided. Policy analysis, semi-structured interviews with sex workers (n
= 8), and a literature review were used to study the relationship between the New Zealand model
of decriminalizing sex work and the safety of female sex workers, compared to the Netherlands’
model of legalization.
Keywords sex work, prostitution policy, decriminalization, legalization, safety,
stigmatization
, 4
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.1 – Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 6
2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 – Topic.............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 – Relevance ...................................................................................................................... 9
3. Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................................... 9
3.1 – Relevant theories ......................................................................................................... 10
3.2 – Sub questions............................................................................................................... 12
3.3 – Hypotheses .................................................................................................................. 12
3.4 – Relevant policies ......................................................................................................... 13
3.4.3 – Safety as defined in the current policies ............................................................... 14
3.4.4 – Policy approaches to achieving safety................................................................. 15
4. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.1 – Research aim ............................................................................................................... 16
4.2 – Research methods ........................................................................................................ 17
4.2.1 – Literature review .................................................................................................. 17
4.2.2 – Policy analysis ...................................................................................................... 17
4.2.3 – Semi-structured interviews ................................................................................... 18
4.3 – Respondents ................................................................................................................ 19
4.4 – Considerations ............................................................................................................. 21
4.4.1 – Ethical considerations........................................................................................... 21
4.4.2 – Practical considerations ........................................................................................ 21
5. Findings ................................................................................................................................ 22
5.1 – Bottom-up definition of safety .................................................................................... 23
5.2 – Consequences of current prostitution policy ............................................................... 24
5.3 – Sex workers’ experience of stigmatization ................................................................. 29
5.4 – Perceived relationship between current policy and safety .......................................... 31
6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 34
7. Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 35
7.1 – Explanations ................................................................................................................ 36
7.2 - Limitations ................................................................................................................... 38
7.3 – Further research ........................................................................................................... 39
7.4 – Policy recommendations ............................................................................................. 39
References ................................................................................................................................ 41
Appendix A .............................................................................................................................. 47
The relationship between decriminalization and legalization of sex work and female sex
workers’ safety in Aotearoa New Zealand and the Netherlands
Name Jana van Geest
Student number S1498037
University Leiden University, Faculty of Law
MSc Comparative Criminal Justice
Supervisor Dr. Miranda Boone
Second reader Dr. Adriano Martufi
Word count 14.376
, 2
Acknowledgment
I would be remiss if I did not take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude to the people
who made this thesis possible. First, my supervisor, Dr. Miranda Boone, who was instrumental
during these past few months. Her continuous encouragement pushed me to create the thesis
before you, of which I am incredibly proud, and which would be nowhere near where it is today
without her insightful feedback. Secondly, I would like to thank Dr. Adriano Martufi, without
whom I would still be afraid to kill my darlings. Next, this thesis would have been impossible
without the incredible help of all respondents, in Aotearoa New Zealand as well as the
Netherlands. I am profoundly grateful for the open and honest conversations you were all
willing to have with me. Lastly, I wish to thank the New Zealand Prostitutes’ Collective, and
Dame Catherine Healy in particular, who brought me in touch with many of the aforementioned
respondents and was hugely helpful from the start.
, 3
Abstract
In 2003, Aotearoa New Zealand became the first country to decriminalize sex work when it
implemented the Prostitution Reform Act (PRA). To this day, the New Zealand model is hailed
for its evidence-based approach to sex work legislation. The Netherlands, on the other hand,
opted for a legalization policy when it lifted the ban on brothels in 2000. Despite popular
misconceptions concerning the presumed similarity of these two approaches, these two models
evoke unmistakably different perceptions concerning the safety of sex workers. Moreover, this
thesis shows that what starts out as the regulation of prostitution can develop into de facto
repression. Emphasis is placed on which mechanisms within prostitution policy factor into the
safety of sex workers themselves and explanations for the distinct differences found between
these two models are provided. Policy analysis, semi-structured interviews with sex workers (n
= 8), and a literature review were used to study the relationship between the New Zealand model
of decriminalizing sex work and the safety of female sex workers, compared to the Netherlands’
model of legalization.
Keywords sex work, prostitution policy, decriminalization, legalization, safety,
stigmatization
, 4
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.1 – Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 6
2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 – Topic.............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 – Relevance ...................................................................................................................... 9
3. Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................................... 9
3.1 – Relevant theories ......................................................................................................... 10
3.2 – Sub questions............................................................................................................... 12
3.3 – Hypotheses .................................................................................................................. 12
3.4 – Relevant policies ......................................................................................................... 13
3.4.3 – Safety as defined in the current policies ............................................................... 14
3.4.4 – Policy approaches to achieving safety................................................................. 15
4. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.1 – Research aim ............................................................................................................... 16
4.2 – Research methods ........................................................................................................ 17
4.2.1 – Literature review .................................................................................................. 17
4.2.2 – Policy analysis ...................................................................................................... 17
4.2.3 – Semi-structured interviews ................................................................................... 18
4.3 – Respondents ................................................................................................................ 19
4.4 – Considerations ............................................................................................................. 21
4.4.1 – Ethical considerations........................................................................................... 21
4.4.2 – Practical considerations ........................................................................................ 21
5. Findings ................................................................................................................................ 22
5.1 – Bottom-up definition of safety .................................................................................... 23
5.2 – Consequences of current prostitution policy ............................................................... 24
5.3 – Sex workers’ experience of stigmatization ................................................................. 29
5.4 – Perceived relationship between current policy and safety .......................................... 31
6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 34
7. Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 35
7.1 – Explanations ................................................................................................................ 36
7.2 - Limitations ................................................................................................................... 38
7.3 – Further research ........................................................................................................... 39
7.4 – Policy recommendations ............................................................................................. 39
References ................................................................................................................................ 41
Appendix A .............................................................................................................................. 47
