Summary CMY3708 EXAM PREPARATION NOTES.

CMY3708 EXAM PREPARATION NOTES. Qualitative Research Methodology In Criminology. Qualitative data processing The processing of qualitative data consists of identifying, coding and categorising information and then identifying patterns found in the data. As stated previously, qualitative data usually originate from interview transcripts or observation notes. The coding of information forms an integral part of the data analysis process. 63 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 Emotional response Reaction Perception law enforcement ! ! ! ! . Codes and coding In qualitative research, coding refers to the process whereby ideas and concepts are generated from raw data such as interview transcripts, field notes, archival materials, reports, newspaper articles and art. The coding process requires the researcher to identify, arrange and systematise key thoughts, concepts and categories found in the data. During the coding process, portions of data are separated from their original context and labelled in some way so that all data bearing the same label can be retrieved and inspected together (Ayres 2008). As can be seen in the following example, coding requires the researcher to read through a transcribed interview or field notes, line by line, in order to identify potentially interesting events, features, phrases, behaviours or stages of a process and distinguish them with labels (Benaquisto 2008). This process is known as open coding. Open coding I feel as though life is punishing me for something and this is really troubling me: It is extremely difficult for me to discuss my victimisation and what happened between us I am afraid to talk about the abuse, as the law only protects the woman in such cases, and not the man (Barkhuizen 2010:244). These initial codes can then be reworked into a smaller number of categories or themes, from which conclusions are subsequently drawn. A coding framework, which is the system used to classify the concepts, their definitions and criteria for recognition, is developed over time during the coding and analysis of the data. Through this process of coding and the repeated reviewing of codes, the link between various codes becomes evident, thus enabling the researcher to come to an understanding of the data (Benaquisto 2008). This process of linking codes in order to establish relationships (connections between codes) is known as axial coding. Researchers frequently make use of thematic coding, where information is broken down into key themes or categories that describe the phenomenon being studied. In contrast to open and axial coding, which tend to focus on a more comprehensive analysis of the data through the inclusion of the researcher’s analytical insights, thematic coding aims to reduce the data into more manageable sections. In thematic coding, the researcher frequently begins with a list of known and/or anticipated themes. For instance, in a scenario where the researcher makes use of an interview schedule, the themes are linked with the questions in the interview schedule. The researcher might also identify themes from the review of the literature or from professional experience (Ayres 2008). 64 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 5 Activity The purpose of this activity is to help you to apply theoretical information in practice. Carefully read through the following extract from a transcribed interview and identify the relevant codes a researcher might use to analyse the data. A few years into our relationship I received a job offer, as a result of my field of expertise, to work on an exclusive private island off the coast of Africa. I arranged a position for Lynn with the hope that the change would be beneficial to her and our relationship. We left and for three months things were going fairly well between us, but then she became violent once again. This time the abuse was worse and it became almost impossible to hide it from others as the island was small and the inhabitants few. I ran out of excuses after a while. I feel humiliated because I was abused by her. Very few people understand what I went through and just about no one wants to listen to my story if I try to tell them. The one or two people I have tried to tell refer to me as a ‘‘Pissie’’ who cannot stand up to a woman, especially these ‘‘Matcho Blou Bul Boelies’’ that attack their wives after a party to prove their manliness. They also don’t care in whose company they abuse their wives. I believe that this is wrong and would never raise my hand to a woman. I believe that a man has a lot more power to injure than a woman does. Feedback Possible codes that could be used in this section are: . relationship dynamics . frequency of abuse . physical impact of abuse . emotional impact of abuse . perceptions of abuse in society . personal perceptions of abuse It is clear from this section that coding is an important but laborious and timeconsuming task. 2.5.3 Qualitative data analysis There are many different approaches to data analysis in qualitative research. The method used will largely depend on the research topic, the researcher’s personal preferences, as well as time constraints and the equipment and finances available to the researcher. We will now briefly consider ethnographical and narrative analysis to illustrate how data can be analysed in qualitative research. 65 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 5 2.5.3.1 Ethnography Ethnography focuses on the way in which research participants construct and understand their social world/life-world. It therefore aims to understand, rather than describe, participants’ life-world (Bachman & Schutt 2011:289). During the analysis of data, the researcher will identify data and/or themes that deal with how the participants construct and perceive their life-world. An example of such a study could be the analysis of social behaviour of members of a prison gang. In such a study the researcher will focus on understanding the life-world of prison gangs and the effect thereof on the social functioning of gang members in the prison environment. 2.5.3.2 Narrative and discourse analysis Narrative analysis focuses on how people create and use stories to interpret their lifeworld. Researchers do not focus on the factual content in order to determine whether it is valid or not, but rather on the story itself. Stories are viewed as products of social interaction in society and reflect the social behaviour, historical accounts and cultural practices of a specific society. Narratives act as the interpretive devices through which people represent themselves and their life-world (Bachman & Schutt 2011:291). The coding strategy in narrative analysis involves the reading of a story in order to classify it into general patterns (Bachman & Schutt 2011:291). For example, Alford (2007) used narrative analysis to research the phenomenon of whistle-blowers, those who speak out against illegal or unethical practices in the organisation in which they work. The following extract is an example of how Alford used the ‘‘story’’ of one of the participants to understand their perceptions of their personal experiences. ‘‘I did it because I had to ... because I had no other choice ... because I couldn’t live with myself if I hadn’t done anything ... because it was speak up or stroke out ... . What else could I do? I have to look at myself in the mirror every morning?’’ This is what most whistle-blowers say (the comments of several strung together to form a single quote), and the question is how to regard this almost universal explanation, one that is generally offered gratis – that is, not in response to a question about ‘‘Why’d you do it?’’ There is something formulaic about the explanation, but that does not mean empty. The trick will be to find out what the explanation is a formula for. The answer is that choice less choice is a formula for relief from the almost unbearable regret of having let oneself be sent on a suicide mission (Alford 2007). From the analysis it is clear that Alford does not focus on the factual content, but rather on the participant’s understanding of his life-world and the phenomenon. Conversation analysis, also known as discourse analysis, is a method researchers use to analyse conversations. Discourse analysis focuses on the sequence and details of conversational interaction (Bachman & Schutt 2011:292). In other words, it looks at patterns of speech, such as how people talk about a particular subject, what metaphors they use, how they take turns in conversation, and so on. The researcher therefore analyses the conversation and associated interactions between participants and is not interested in the content of the conversation as such. 2.5.4 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS) Qualitative research is characterised by the large amount of raw data it generates, usually in the form of text. Traditionally, researchers used to spend endless hours 66 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 5 organising and analysing the raw data manually. However, qualitative research has changed dramatically with the introduction of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS). Currently, computer software is used in the transcription and analysis of interviews, as well as in the coding of data. Data analysis computer software can be divided into two broad categories, namely, generic software and dedicated qualitative analysis software (Ezzy 2002:112). Generic software, such as Microsoft Word (MSWord), is generally used to capture and store data, as well as for text retrieval and as a text-based manager. According to Lewins and Silver (2009), dedicated qualitative analysis software includes programs that are designed specifically to assist with the coding and retrieval of information, as well as with textual mapping. Qualitative researchers can make use of the following types of packages: 2.5.4.1 Code-based theory building software This software assists the researcher in managing the analysis of qualitative data in order to apply thematic coding to raw data, thereby reducing the amount of data in accordance with identified themes. It also assists researchers to test relationships between concepts and/or themes, thus assisting with the analysis of information. Some of the programs facilitate the graphic visualisation of relations and processes by making use of text mapping. ATLAS.ti, NVivo and HyperResearch are examples of such programs. 2.5.4.2 Text retrievers and text-based managers These software programs assist in complex searches for text and language, including the use of thesaurus tools to find words with similar meanings. They index all words contained in the text in order to provide word frequency tables, to create active word lists, as well as to provide easy keyword or phrase retrieval. Text-based managers tend to have more functions than text retrievers and they are generally better equipped to deal with a large volume of data. Examples of these software programs are Metamorph and WordCruncher. It should be noted that CAQDAS software assists researchers only in terms of the analysis of data. It remains the researcher’s task to analyse and interpret the computer-generated data further. Summary In this study unit we focused on data processing and analysis in qualitative research. We discussed ethnography and narrative and discourse analysis, as well as computer-assisted qualitative data analysis. In the next study unit we explain the report writing procedure. Self-assessment exercise for study unit 2.5 .......................................................... Complete the following sentences. 1. In qualitative research, coding refers to the process whereby __________________________________________________________. 2. The coding process requires the researcher to __________________________________________________________. 67 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 5 3. Thematic coding is where___________________________________ 4. Conversation analysis is also known as ________________________ . 5. Qualitative research has changed dramatically with the introduction of _________________________________________________________ . 6. Data analysis computer software can be divided into two broad categories, namely, __________________________________________________ . 7. Coding requires the researcher to __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ . 8. Initial codes can later be reworked into _________________________________________________________ . 9. A coding framework is _________________________________________________________ . 10. This process of linking codes in order to establish relationships (connections between codes) is known as _______________________ . 68 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 5 STUDY UNIT 2.6 Step 5: Report writing Learning outcomes for this study unit In this study unit you should master the following: . Explain the purpose of a research report. . Discuss the different steps in writing an academic report. Introduction The purpose of doing research is not only to study phenomena, but also to communicate the findings to people who can benefit from the research. Imagine if great inventors, such as Alexander Bell, who invented the telephone, or Thomas Edison, who invented electricity, had kept their inventions to themselves and failed to share their discoveries with others! Similarly, it is pointless for researchers to conduct research and then fail to communicate their findings with others who can benefit from them. Bachman and Shutt (2011:242) view this as one of the most important steps in the research process, stating that ‘‘if the intended audience is not able to learn about the study’s results, the research should be judged as a failure no matter how expensive the research, how sophisticated its design, or how much of yourself you invested in it’’. 2.6.1 Purpose of a research report Scientific reporting has three primary functions: it communicates specific data and ideas; it usually contributes to the body of knowledge of a discipline; and it may stimulate or provide direction for further investigation (Babbie & Mouton 2001:563). The primary purpose of writing a report is to share information, such as research findings, with interested parties. These parties will differ, depending on the purpose of the report. A researcher might write a research report for different reasons, such as a dissertation (master’s degree), thesis (doctoral degree) or an assignment to obtain an academic qualification. Researchers also write articles for publication in scientific journals or to present their findings at a conference. The purpose of a research report may also be to advance scientific knowledge, to shape social policy or to organise social action (Bachman & Schutt 2011:425). Scientific knowledge is advanced when researchers study a phenomenon that has not been studied before or if their studies unearth new or additional information in the field of existing studies. For example, after the xenophobic attacks in South Africa in May 2008, various studies were conducted on the subject because limited knowledge was available on the phenomenon from a South African perspective. The information gained from these studies thus advanced our scientific knowledge base. 69 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 Research can also be used to change social policy. For example, in 2006 NICRO (National Institute for Crime Prevention and the Reintegration of Offenders) researched the impact that growing up within a prison environment could have on a child who remains with his/her mother during her incarceration. Based on the findings, they made a submission to the Portfolio Committee on Corrections to recommend certain changes to the policy. The submission contributed to changes that were included in the Correctional Services Amendment Act 25 of 2008. In this instance, the research was conducted not only to advance scientific knowledge, but also to bring about changes in policy and practice. The idea of research as a method to organise social action originated with William White. He argued that researchers should abandon the idea of academic research and engage more in applied research to develop a better understanding of social phenomena. Consequently, he developed an alternative research and reporting strategy called participatory action research (PAR) (Bachman & Schutt 2011:426). This type of research is frequently undertaken by researchers who are also practitioners in the field and it aims to improve the performance quality of an action or intervention in a specific area. In PAR, the researcher is directly involved and also involves other persons in the field of study. As in the case of the qualitative data analysis spiral, the PAR process is described as a spiral and consists of the following steps: . planning a change . acting and observing the process and consequences of the change . reflecting on the process and consequences . replanning . acting and observing again (Bachman & Schutt 2011:426) In contrast with traditional qualitative studies where research results are reported at the end of a study, in PAR reporting happens throughout the research process. PAR therefore provides useful and immediate feedback. A researcher might use PAR research to evaluate how effective a rape and trauma centre is in its delivery of services to rape victims. To determine this, researchers will start off by looking at the goals of the centre and then, based on the goals, will identify measurable objectives. For instance, the researcher might ask if the centre’s staff can cope with the number of clients they see, what the needs of the clients are and whether the centre fulfils these needs, as well as whether the centre is administered cost-effectively. Next, the researcher will identify the people in the organisation who are responsible for the collection of data, such as an intake officer to collect data on the number of clients who use the centre on a daily basis. This information can then be compared with the running costs of the centre to determine whether the centre is cost70 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 effective. Thus, all the information is analysed and interpreted to determine if the centre is effective. But this is not where the research process ends. In PAR, the next phase will be to identify problem areas and then to take action to resolve these problems. The remedial steps will be regarded as a new action, which also needs to be evaluated. It is therefore clear that participation research can become an ongoing process. Activity The purpose of this activity is for you to identify the purpose of research reports. Study section 2.6.1 and write down the purpose of research reports. Feedback The purpose of research reports is to . share information . obtain an academic qualification . write an article for publication in a scientific journal . advance scientific knowledge . shape social policy . organise social action Remember, it is important not only to know what the purpose of report writing is, but also to be able to discuss the purpose and give an applicable example of where you would use a specific type of report. 2.6.2 Writing a research report In writing a research report, Babbie and Mouton (2001:565) advise researchers to ‘‘tell them what you’re going to tell them; tell them; and tell them what you told them’’. This might seem confusing, but essentially it means that researchers should record their research in such a manner that it is reflective of the planning, process and findings of the study. The phrase ‘‘and tell them what you told them’’ refers to the researchers’ responsibility to integrate information in order to present a holistic report of the research (Babbie & Mouton 2001:565). It is important to remember that a research report is a scientific document and should 71 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 therefore follow certain methodological guidelines. Ladikos (2009:155) recommends that the following methodological guidelines be followed when writing a research report: . The research problem must be clearly stated. . The report must specify the goals of the research. . The research design must be indicated. . The report should contain information about the nature and relevance of data sources. . The report should provide all relevant details about the data collection. . The report must describe the processing and analysis of the data. . The conclusion must be based on data that relate to the research problem. . The report should satisfy the technical requirements of the organisation pertaining to the format and length of the study and referencing style. The layout of a research report will be determined by the purpose of the report. A report for academic purposes follows a different format from, for instance, an article that is written for publication in a scientific journal. It is therefore important for the researcher to know which format to follow before writing the report. As an example of a research report, we will explore the generic structure most commonly used for writing an academic report. 2.6.2.1 Introduction The purpose of an introduction is literally to introduce the reader to the study. It should therefore include information on the origin and purpose of the study. The researcher should also give some background information to contextualise the study. An introduction should include a brief outline of the content and structure of the report. The following is an example of an introduction to an article that was published in the Acta Criminologica journal. INTRODUCTION When studying incarceration, it is necessary to understand the origin of a particular aspect of the system that would constitute the context of a study. From a historical perspective, the first part of the article therefore provides an overview of the origin and development of female incarceration in South Africa. However, both locally and abroad the female inmate population usually constitutes a very small portion of the correctional population. For this very reason, it is often a neglected population, not only in terms of programmes and services delivery to this minority group but also from a research perspective. Incarcerated women experience specific problems, and with the following discussion research findings are presented on conditions in female correctional centres. In addition, as many incarcerated women are plagued by concerns about their children, the final part of the study refers to the phenomenon of incarcerated mothers (Luyt & Du Preez 2010:88). 72 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 Activity The purpose of this activity is for you to identify the information that must be included in an introduction. Read the introduction in the above box and answer the following questions: 1. What is the purpose of the article? 2. What background information does the researcher include to contextualise the article? 3. What will be discussed in the article? Feedback From the introduction, the reader can deduce that the purpose of the article is to discuss research findings on the conditions in female correctional centres. The researcher argues that female inmates are a neglected group in corrections. This is primarily because they are a minority group; consequently they are neglected in terms of facilities and developmental programmes. The article will include information on the origin and development of female incarceration in South Africa, conditions in female correctional centres and the phenomenon of incarcerated mothers. The introduction thus tells the readers what to expect when they read the article. The introduction is a very important part of a research report because it can either stimulate the reader’s interest or discourage the reader from reading any further. 2.6.2.2 Literature review The purpose of a literature review is to place the research in a broader context. It introduces the reader to information, such as similar research, on the topic of the report. The literature review also explains the reason why the researcher undertook this particular study. A literature review consists primarily of existing research and theories. Care should therefore be taken to acknowledge the source of the information. According to Babbie and Mouton (2001:566), plagiarism – where an author uses someone else’s words and/or ideas without acknowledging the original source – can be avoided by making use of quotation marks to identify where the exact words are quoted from another source. It is also not acceptable to reword an idea and present the revised version as your own. The researcher must always acknowledge the original source of information. 2.6.2.3 Methodology It is very important to include detailed information on the methodology that was followed in the study in order to confirm the validity of the study. This allows the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of the method and the validity and reliability of the study. Information about the approach (quantitative or qualitative), the sample used and the method of data collection, analysis and interpretation should be discussed. The researcher should also indicate why he/she chose the specific research methodology (Bachman & Schutt 2011:431). 73 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 2.6.2.4 Discussion of findings In this section the researcher presents and discusses the results of the study. Findings represent the researcher’s interpretations of the analysed data. They should be presented in a logical format in order to assist the reader to understand the findings and why the researcher came to specific conclusions. In qualitative research, the findings are generally substantiated in textual format, making use of direct quotes from the participants and extracts from narratives or field notes. The following is an example of how qualitative findings can be presented in a research report. Tom states that he did not have a good support system during the time of his abuse. There were no community members (in the form of friends or neighbours) to which he could turn for help or support during abusive episodes for physical assistance or emotional support. He states that he was taught that men do not complain about their relationship problems, especially not to other males as this would lead to profound embarrassment for both parties. He says that he was under the impression that others thought: ‘‘What’s your problem, just sort her out. Don’t come and whine to everybody. Just get divorced and move on – what’s your case?’’ He further states that other people feel, ‘‘You don’t have to share your inner soul with me. I don’t want to listen to your problems’’, and says, ‘‘I don’t understand why I was feeling embarrassed as I did not feel like I was instigating abuse, but eventually started doubting myself’’ (Barkhuizen 2010:189) In the above example the researcher presents her interpretation of the data and then includes a verbatim quote from the participant to substantiate her findings. 2.6.2.5 Conclusion The researcher reflects on the key research findings and their implications in the conclusion. According to Babbie and Mouton (2001:568), in the conclusion the researcher should ‘‘... avoid reviewing every specific finding, but [you] should review all the significant ones. The report should conclude with a statement of what [you] have discovered about [your] subject matter’’. In the conclusion, the researcher summarises the most important findings and discusses the implications thereof in practice, as can be seen in the following example. CONCLUSION The South African Department of Correctional Services indicated in the last White Paper (Department of Correctional Services, 2005) that dysfunctional families provide fertile ground for acts of criminality. Incarcerated women and their children (as an example of a minority group and dysfunctional families) form an ideal cornerstone from which to start introducing major transformation in the correctional system. This refers to transformation that would benefit the female inmates. The question remains, when will the correctional authorities start to walk the talk and go out of their way to implement transformation and rehabilitation strategies properly, instead of changing policy every time a challenge arises? How do we then answer the question posed earlier in this discussion, namely, whether at the beginning of the second decade in the third millennium, conditions in correctional centres have advanced with the times, or has progress become stagnant and caught up in time to match the mega designs present in many of the older correctional structures of South Africa? The unfortunate answer is that 74 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 progress has indeed become stagnant in most areas of incarceration in South Africa. Many times, transformation ideas are shipwrecked at the point of implementation and opportunities for change and rehabilitation are simply forfeited as was demonstrated with regard to the incarcerated female minority population in South Africa. In the above example, the authors summarise the findings of the article in the conclusion. They also ask pertinent questions that could be explored in another study, for example looking at the impact frequent policy changes has on the Department of Correctional Services’ service delivery to female inmates. 2.6.2.6 Bibliography A bibliography is a systematic list of books and other sources, such as journals, internet articles and interviews with experts, which is placed at the end of a scientific report. The purpose of referencing is to . demonstrate that scientific research practice was followed . show the range of ideas and approaches used in the study . acknowledge the sources the researcher consulted . inform the reader where to locate the sources used in the study . avoid plagiarism (Learning Advisors and Librarians 2011) The bibliography should include full bibliographic details of all the sources used in a research report. There are different methods of referencing, each following a unique format. It is important for the researcher to verify the method prescribed by the academic institution, journal or organisation. For example, at the University of South Africa we make use of the Harvard referencing method. Summary In this study unit we explained the purpose of a research report and the different steps to follow when writing a research report. The next study unit deals with methods in qualitative research. The first section deals with the characteristics and value of narrative research. Self-assessment exercise for study unit 2.6 .......................................................... Answer the following questions. 1. Scientific reporting has three primary functions, namely . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ 2. What is participatory action research (PAR)? . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ 3. Which steps are involved in the data analysis spiral of the PAR process? 75 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ 4. What is the purpose of research reports? . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ 5. What is the purpose of a literature review in a research study? . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ 6. What is plagiarism? 76 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 THEME 2: SELF-STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Indicate the differences and similarities between basic and applied research. (30 marks) 2. Summarise the decision-making steps in the research process. (15 marks) 3. Explain the aspects that should be considered during the identification of a research topic. (15 marks) 4. Analyse the criteria against which a research topic should be evaluated in order to ensure the significance of the study. (15 marks) 5. Discuss the aspects that will influence the choice of a research topic in qualitative research and indicate how these aspects will influence the choice of a topic. (30 marks) 6. Describe the three factors that should be taken into consideration in order to formulate a research problem in qualitative research. (30 marks) 7. Criminological and social science research falls within four categories. Discuss each of the categories and make use of relevant examples to illustrate the differences between the different categories. (30 marks) 8. Describe literature reviews in qualitative research. (30 marks) 9. Make use of examples to distinguish between the use of topic-related and method-related literature in a literature review. (15 marks) 10. Discuss the qualitative interview as a method of data collection. (30 marks) 11. Distinguish between the different roles a researcher can play during observation. (15 marks) 12. Analyse Creswell’s data collection cycle. (30 marks) 13. Analyse Creswell’s data analysis spiral. (30 marks) 14. Discuss the role computer-assisted qualitative data analysis can play in qualitative research. (15 marks) 15. Analyse the purpose of a research report. (15 marks) 16. Describe the generic structure most commonly used for writing an academic report. (30 marks) Answers to self-assessment exercises in theme 2 Study unit 2.1 Basic research – b, c, f, g, i Applied research – a, d, e, h, j Study unit 2.2 The answer to this question can be found in section 2.2.2. Study unit 2.3 1. The manner in which the researcher formulates the research question is important because it will determine the research method of the study. It also indicates the parameters of the study. 2. The research problem is a statement that identifies the scope and area of the research topic. It identifies the specific phenomenon that is being studied and demarcates the research sample used in the study. 3. In order to formulate the research problem, the researcher needs to consider the units of analysis, the research goal and research strategy. 4. The research strategy deals with the research approach. 5. The research problem should be stated clearly in order to tell the reader what 77 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 question and/or problem the researcher is trying to address, as well as how the researcher aims to do so. Study unit 2.4 A 3 B 3 C 4 D 2 E 4 Study unit 2.5 Complete the following sentences: 1. In qualitative research, coding refers to the process whereby ideas and concepts are generated from raw data. 2. The coding process requires the researcher to identify, arrange and systematise key thoughts, concepts and categories found in the data. 3. Thematic coding is where information is broken down into key themes or categories that describe the phenomenon that is being studied. 4. Conversation analysis is also known as discourse analysis. 5. Qualitative research has changed dramatically with the introduction of computerassisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS). 6. Data analysis computer software can be divided into two broad categories, namely generic software and dedicated qualitative analysis software. 7. Coding requires the researcher to read through a transcribed interview or field notes, line by line, in order to identify potentially interesting events, features, phrases, behaviours or stages of a process and to distinguish between them with labels. 8. Initial codes can later be reworked into a smaller number of categories or themes, from which conclusions are subsequently drawn. 9. A coding framework is the system used to classify the concepts, their definitions, and criteria for recognition and is developed over time during the coding and analysis of the data. 10. This process of linking codes in order to establish relationships (connections between codes) is known as axial coding. Study unit 2.6 Answer the following questions: 1. Scientific reporting has three primary functions, namely . it communicates specific data and ideas . it contributes to the body of knowledge of a discipline . it may stimulate or provide direction for further investigation 2. What is participatory action research? It is a type of research that is frequently undertaken by researchers who are also practitioners in the field and it aims to improve the performance quality of an action or intervention in a specific area. 3. Which steps does the data analysis spiral of the PAR process consist of? . planning a change 78 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 . acting and observing the process and consequences of the change . reflecting on the process and consequences . re-planning . acting and observing again (Bachman & Schutt 2011:426) 4. What is the purpose of research reports? . to share information . to obtain an academic qualification . to write an article for publication in a scientific journal . to advance scientific knowledge . to shape social policy . to organise social action 5. What is the purpose of a literature review in a research study? The purpose of a literature review is to place the research in a broader context. It introduces the reader to information on the topic of the report, such as similar research. The literature review also explains the reason why the researcher undertook this particular study. 6. What is plagiarism? Plagiarism occurs when an author uses someone else’s words and/or ideas without acknowledging the original source. 79 ........... S t u d y u n i t 2 . 6 THEME 3 Methods in qualitative research ‘‘Research is formalised curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose.’’ Zora Neale Hurston Introduction In theme 1 we explored the origin of scientific knowledge and the approaches (quantitative and qualitative) in scientific research. We determined that there are three factors that a researcher needs to consider in order to choose which approach to follow, namely: . the researcher’s scientific-philosophical and research-methodological points of departure . the aim of the research project . the nature of the research phenomenon (area of research/investigation) and research object (specific study object) (Ladikos 2009:49) The research design process in qualitative research therefore begins when the researcher makes a conscious decision to follow a qualitative approach. This, in turn, influences the methodology and scientific techniques that are applied in the study. Scientific technique is an aid or one of the tools of scientific methods and may include, for instance, interviews or observations (Ladikos 2009:49). There are various methods that a researcher can use to conduct a qualitative study. The term ‘‘method’’ literally means ‘‘the path along which’’ and therefore indicates the way in which the study is conducted (Ladikos 2009:49). 81 ........... T h e m e 3 STUDY UNIT 3.1 Narrative research Learning outcomes for this study unit In this study unit you should master the following: . Discuss in detail the characteristics of narrative research. . Explain the value of narrative research. . Identify the limitations of narrative research. A narrative is a verbal account of a sequence of events in the order in which they happened. In other words, it is a description of people’s experiences in their everyday interactions with one another and with their social environment. Moen (2006) refers to the sharing of these experiences as storytelling. According to him, people make use of storytelling to find practical solutions to life’s challenges and to create an understanding of their experience. Not only do people continually create narratives to order and structure their life experiences, but they are also constantly bombarded with narratives from the world in which they live. People thus use narrative descriptions about their experiences and interactions with their life-world to make sense of the behaviour of others (Moen 2006). In narrative studies, researchers are interested in people’s stories. Narratives allow a researcher to study how individuals, or a group of people, understand their interaction in a specific context within their social, cultural and institutional environment (Moen 2006). 82 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1 3.1.1 Characteristics A narrative can be defined as the process of telling a story or giving an account of an event or experience. In narrative research, the researcher focuses on participants’ ‘‘life stories’’. It should be noted that the researcher is not interested in what happened, but is concerned with the meaning participants attach to the stories. Qualitative researchers study personal and group narratives within the context of their natural settings, thereby attempting to make sense of and interpret phenomena in terms of the meaning people bring to them. There are three basic assumptions that underpin narrative research, namely: . that human beings organise their experiences of the world into narratives and that narratives are the primary method by which human existence is rendered meaningful . that the stories that are told depend on the individuals’ past and present experiences, their values, the people the stories are being told to (the addressees) and when and where they are being told. Life stories are therefore not abstract structures that can be viewed in isolation from their social and cultural context. They are rooted in perceptions about society and shaped by an individual’s knowledge and personal identity, which are continually being constructed and revised. . that researchers acknowledge the multi-voiced-ness that is present in narratives. Even though researchers acknowledge that narratives are generally personal stories shaped by the knowledge, experiences, values and feelings of the persons who are telling them, they also recognise that collective stories are influenced by the cultural, historical and institutional settings in which they occur. Narratives are therefore an interaction between individuals’ beliefs and experiences and the influences of their life-world. Narratives connect individuals and their social context, resulting in a multitude of voices being present within an individual’s stories (Moen 2006). Clandin and Connely (in Creswell 2007:55–57) identify five aspects that should be included in the collection and analysis of data when doing narrative research: 1. Firstly, the researcher identifies a research problem or question. It is important that the research problem or question be suited to narrative research. The purpose of the research should be to study stories of individuals or groups in order to understand the storytellers’ (participants’) perspective of a phenomenon. Creswell (2007:55) highlights the fact that the analysis of stories is time-consuming and intensive and that the sample should therefore not be too large. 2. Secondly, researchers identify and select one or more participants who have stories or life experiences pertaining to the research question or problem. The researcher then spends considerable time with the participants in order to collect their stories. Multiple types of information, such as verbal dialogue, letters, photographs, memos or memorandums and journals or diaries are used to construct and shed light on the narrative. Researchers can also make use of audio or video equipment to record data. 3. Thirdly, researchers collect information about the context of the stories. This involves collecting information on the participants’ background (their family, job and social environment), their culture (race and ethnicity) and historical context (place and time) in order to contextualise the stories within the participants’ lifeworld. 4. Fourthly, the researcher needs to analyse the participants’ stories in order to 83 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1 break them down into an analysable format. Creswell (2007:56) refers to this process as ‘‘restorying’’. According to him, the researcher needs to identify key elements, such as time, place, plot and scene, and then rewrite the story to place it within this chronological format. Stories can also be analysed in terms of themes. For example, in a study that explored the narratives of ninth graders regarding conflict, the researcher identified four types of stories, namely, action tales, expressive tales, moral tales and rational tales. The story types thus act as themes in terms of which the researcher can analyse the stories (Bachman & Schutt 2011:291). Riessman (2008) identifies structural, interactional and performative analysis as additional methods to examine narrative data. Structural analysis focuses on the way a story is told; therefore the language that participants use to tell the story is important. In interactional analysis, the dialogue between teller and listener is important and the researcher will therefore focus on this interactional process between storyteller and listener. In performative analysis, researchers analyse the non-verbal actions that storytellers use during narratives. It is important to remember that in narrative studies, researchers focus on the meaning that participants attach to the story and not on the factual content of the story. 5. Fifthly and lastly, the researcher collaborates with the participants throughout the data collection and analysis phase of the research process. The relationship and the impact of the research process on both the participants and the researcher often form key elements of the narrative. The following quote from a book by Ross Kemp (2008), which describes the killing of a young man in gang-related fighting, is an example of how the researcher’s perspective becomes part of the narrative. The Crips believed that the 49 Bads had done it, and macho gang pride – known here by one of the deadliest words in the English language, respect – dedicated that a Blood had to pay in the same coin. When the Crips came looking for payback it seems they found Robert Lee Walker. What’s really hard for an outsider like me to understand is that Walker may well have been killed simply for being in the wrong place at the wrong time (Kemp 2008:121). The narrative was constructed from stories told by Robert Lee Walker’s girlfriend and friend, who viewed the attack, as well as from information from 49 Bads gang members. This is an example of the multi-voiced-ness that is associated with narrative studies. Note how Kemp uses ‘‘gang language’’ to place the story in context. By including his perspective on the story, Kemp as researcher – becomes part of the narrative. Narrative analysis allows the readers to understand a phenomenon through the stories of people’s own perspectives on the occurrence. Furthermore, the contextualisation of these stories informs the readers of the broader social settings and processes that had a direct and/or indirect impact on the narrative. Activity The purpose of this activity is to help you to identify the studies for which narrative research can be used. 84 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1 Read through study unit 3.1 and identify which types of studies are suited to a narrative approach. Feedback Narrative research is suitable for any topic where the researcher is interested in the participants’ ‘‘life stories’’ from their perspective. As stated previously, the focus of narrative research is on the participants and their stories as a reflection of how they interpret happenings in their life-world. 3.1.2 Value of narrative studies The primary value of narrative research is that it creates the opportunity to understand the experiences and perceptions of individuals and/or groups within their life-world. It can thus help the researcher to understand the motives for various types of behaviour. For example, the narrative analysis in Ross Kemp’s book on gangs will assist the reader to understand why gang killings take place. Narrative studies also connect individuals and their social context, thus creating insight into the cultural, historical and institutional settings in which the narratives occurred. 3.1.3 Limitations of narrative studies Creswell (2007:57) is of the opinion that narrative research is a difficult method to use because the researcher needs to collect extensive information about the participants in order to have a clear understanding of their experiences. Narrative research is therefore inappropriate for studies with large numbers of participants. Summary In this study unit we explained the characteristics, value and limitations of narrative studies. The next study unit deals with phenomenological research. Self-assessment exercise for study unit 3.1 .......................................................... Fill in the missing words. 1. A narrative can be defined as the process of ___________________ . 2. In narrative studies, researchers are interested in ________. Narratives allow a researcher to_________ , or a group of people, ______________ in a specific context within their _______________ . 3. In narrative research, the researcher focuses on participants’ _____________ . 85 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1 4. In narrative studies, the researcher is not interested in what happened, but is concerned with the ___________________________________ . 5. Qualitative researchers study _____ within the __________________ , thus attempting to make sense of and interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. 86 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 1 STUDY UNIT 3.2 Phenomenological research Learning outcomes for this study unit In this study unit you should master the following: . Explain the characteristics of phenomenological research. . Discuss the value of phenomenological research. . Identify the limitations of phenomenological research. Phenomenology deals with the investigation and description of people’s experience in and perceptions of their life-world, without determining whether what is experienced is objectively real. Phenomenological research focuses on the experiences that a group of participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon, such as domestic violence or crime victimisation. According to Creswell (2007:57), the purpose of phenomenological research is to reduce individual experiences of a phenomenon to a description of shared experiences that a group of people have in common. For example, in the following extract from the book on gangs by Ross Kemp (2008:56–57), the author describes how a gang in New Zealand was formed because of the shared experiences and perceptions of a group of children in 1968. Originally a white gang but now mainly Maori, the Mongrel Mob was formed in Hasting and nearby Napier back in 1968 by kids who said they had been abused in the country’s childcare system. Alienated by what they claimed to have suffered at the hand of their supposed carers, the kids formed the Mongrel Mob as a way of striking back, not just at the people they felt had ruined their childhood but at the country as a whole. This narrative describes the experiences, perceptions and reactions of a group of children that resulted in their forming a gang. The essence of why gangs are formed, namely, as a rebellion against what gang members perceived as abuse from authoritarian structures in a country, was also found to be prevalent in other gangs around the world (Kemp 2008). This type of information thus helps us to understand gangs as a phenomenon. 3.2.1 Characteristics As stated previously, the purpose of phenomenological studies is to investigate the fundamental nature of an experience or phenomenon by examining the descriptions of the experiences given by participants. Phenomenological studies can thus be 87 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 2 described as the study of phenomena or, more specifically, the appearance of things in terms of participants’ own experiences. These studies seek to examine the meanings that things have from a personal perspective and how these meanings may be shaped and/or used (Berg 2008). The end result of phenomenological studies is to determine and describe the participants’ understanding of the phenomenon being explored. The description involves not only what was experienced, but also how it was experienced (The Sage Glossary of the Social and Behavioural Sciences 2008). Phenomenological researchers thus highlight human experience as not only valid, but as an important element in understanding human existence. It should be noted that the purpose of phenomenological studies is not to interpret or explain a phenomenon, but merely to give a description of the participants’ understanding of the phenomenon being explored. According to Morrissey and Higgs (2006:162), phenomenological research is based on two premises. The first is that human experiences are a valid, rich and rewarding source of knowledge. Experience, namely, what we are aware of at any point in time, is viewed as the source of all knowing and as the basis of behaviour. It is also the foundation of our knowledge of our self and others, as well as of the world in general. Human experience is therefore viewed as a reliable source of data, the foundation of knowledge about human phenomena. The second premise of phenomenological research emphasises the importance of participants’ everyday world as a valuable and productive source of knowledge. This information assists researchers to develop knowledge into the nature of a phenomenon by analysing how it occurs in the participants’ daily lives. In other words, participants’ descriptions of experiences in their life-world, together with their perceptions and understandings of these experiences, are the essence of what phenomenological research is about (Morrissey & Higgs 2006:163). Data collection in phenomenological research is done through empirical or reflective methods. Interviews are often used as a method of empirical data collection in phenomenological studies (Adams & Van Manen 2008). In phenomenological studies, researchers distinguish between two types of interviews, namely, phenomenological and hermeneutic interviews. The phenomenological interview is used to explore and collect empirical data about a phenomenon, such as the social structure of a gang. The hermeneutic interview is used to explore how the participants interpret aspects of their experiences associated with the studied phenomenon. Observations are also used to collect data in phenomenological research. This is a process that enables researchers to learn first-hand about the interaction, behaviour and perceptions of the participants in their natural environment by observing and participating in those activities. This enables researchers to develop a holistic understanding of the phenomena they study. Reflective methods of data collection aim to interpret aspects of meaning or meaningfulness that are associated with a phenomenon. They are associated with the reduction of information in order to identify themes that can describe and interpret the meaning of the lived experience. According to Adams and Van Manen (2008), themes such as lived space (spatiality), lived body (corporeality), lived time (temporality) and lived human relations (relationality or communality) could assist the researcher to understand a phenomenon on an existential level. Typically, phenomenological researchers will make use of a small sample because of the in-depth analysis that is required in this type of study. An example of a phenomenological study is an examination of the lived experiences of women who are victims of domestic violence. The researcher may question domestic violence victims 88 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 2 about their experiences, perceptions and understandings. Data collection could consist of interviews with victims of domestic violence. Interview questions would explore the participants’ experiences and probe their thoughts, feelings, concerns and personal viewpoints on the abuse they experience. It would also explore when, where, why and how the abuse occurs. The purpose of such a study would be to identify prevailing themes that describe domestic violence as a phenomenon, with specific emphasis on the experiences of female victims. 3.2.2 Value of phenomenological studies The value of phenomenological studies is that they describe the essence of a phenomenon by comparing individual experiences in order to explain the shared characteristics associated with the phenomenon. It is a method that allows for an indepth study of a specific phenomenon. It highlights the importance of human experience as valid information to understand the different aspects of human existence. It also recognises the value of the everyday world as a valuable and productive source of knowledge in order to create insights into the nature of a phenomenon. Phenomenological studies also have practical value in so far as they can assist therapists to understand the nature of a client’s experiences. For instance, they can help a therapist to understand why victims of domestic violence are often reluctant to end an abusive relationship. 3.2.3 Limitations of phenomenological studies Owing to the in-depth nature of a phenomenological study, the sample generally consists of a small number of participants. It might be methodologically challenging to collect the full, rich verbal accounts required by phenomenological study, especially in the case of studies of children or in cases where the researcher studies sensitive issues, such as male rape or incestuous relationships. Summary In this study unit we explained the characteristics, value and limitations of phenomenological studies. The next section deals with grounded theory research. Self-assessment exercise for study unit 3.2 .......................................................... Answer the following questions. 1. What is the purpose of phenomenological research? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 2. In phenomenological studies, researchers distinguish between two types of interviews, namely, phenomenological and hermeneutic interviews. What is the difference between these types of interviews? __________________________________________________________ 89 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 2 __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 3. What are the premises on which phenomenological research is based? . ______________________________________________________________ . ______________________________________________________________ 4. Which data collection methods can be used in phenomenological research? . ______________________________________________________________ 5. What is the value and limitation of phenomenological research? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 90 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 2 STUDY UNIT 3.3 Grounded theory research Learning outcomes for this study unit In this study unit you should master the following: . Explain the characteristics of grounded theory. . Discuss the value of grounded theory. . Identify the value of grounded theory. Grounded theory refers simultaneously to a method of qualitative inquiry and the products of that research. In terms of a method used in qualitative research, grounded theory method consists of a set of systematic but flexible guidelines for conducting inductive qualitative research aimed at the development of theory (Charmaz & Bryant 2008). 3.3.1 Characteristics The purpose of grounded theory is to develop theory. The theory is ‘‘grounded’’ in, or based on, the data that is generated during observations (Bachman & Schutt 2011:293). The primary objective of grounded theory is to expand on an explanation of a phenomenon by identifying the key elements of that phenomenon. The elements are then categorised into relationships within the context and process of the study. Grounded theory is therefore not descriptive in nature but, rather, aimed at illustrating concepts. Grounded theory differs from other qualitative research methods and makes use of the following steps (Simmons & Gregory 2003): . Minimising preconceptions The research process commences with the researcher having as few preconceptions as possible. The researcher does not attempt to hypothesise or understand a phenomenon prior to commencing the study. The researcher therefore does not formulate problem statements or attempt to identify categories/themes before the collection and analysis of the data. The researcher also does not undertake a literature study before the empirical research; he/she will incorporate existing literature only after the development of the theory has essentially been completed. Research questions are furthermore not identified in advance. The data that are collected during the research process lead to the discovery of relevant questions (Simmons & Gregory 2003). 91 ........... S t u d y u n i t 3 . 3 . Suspending the action problem Action problems are social or organisational problems or issues for which a solution is being sought, for example why programmes in correctional facilities are not effective in preventing re-offending. Traditionally, a researcher faced with these problems would attempt to understand or explain them. In grounded theory, however, the researcher refrains from forming preconceived ideas and views and waits until all the information associated with the topic has been collected. The researcher then analyses the data through a process of constant comparison. This process will be explained later on in the study unit. . Discovering the research problem Grounded theory research begins with a general topic rather than a clearly defined research problem. This general topic gives an indication of where and how data collection should begin. The research problem is identified only later, during the process of data collection and analysis. Data analysis in grounded theory has a well-defined process that begins with a basic description of a phenomenon. It then moves to the description of concepts associated with the phenomenon that is being studied. This is then followed by the development of a theory. Data analysis is accomplished through an elaborate set of coding processes. According to Corbin and Strauss (in Walker & Myrick 2006:549), coding plays a more significant role in grounded theory than in other qualitative studies; it is not simply part of data analysis, but is the actual process whereby data is analysed. Glaser (in Walker & Myrick 2006:549) defines coding as a process whereby data are conceptualised through the constant comparison of incident with incident, and incidents with concept. This involves two analytical processes. The first involves drawing comparisons between one incident and another in order to identify themes and generate categories. New incidents are then compared with the categories. The second process involves the use of neutral questions such as: What category does this incident indicate? These two procedures, together with the use of memorandums that docu