MCB-20806
Marketing:
Chapter 4 consumer behaviour
1. Demonstrate understanding of the main approaches to learning
Learning is the activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skill by studying, practising, or
experiencing something.
2. Understand what is meant by behavioural learning, and the difference between
classical and operant conditioning.
Behavioural learning is concerned with learning as a response to changes in our environment
(previous positive experience, making a decision to buy it again).
Classical conditioning:
- First-order conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (ringing a bell) acquires
motivational importance by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) which
is intrinsically aversive or rewarding.
- Higher-order conditioning is the pairing of two conditioned stimuli (pairing of a song
and a brand).
- Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus
elicits a similar conditioned response (brand extension).
- Evaluative conditioning: changes in the liking of the stimulus (brand) linked to the
pairing of that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli (e.g. celebrity)
Operant conditioning is the changing of behaviour through reinforcement following a desired
response. Learning through behaviour (find nice coffee → you go there again).
Four reinforcement schedules:
- A fixed-ratio schedule (cafe Nero stamps card)
- A fixed-interval schedule (sale three times a year)
- Variable schedules (gambling, sometimes you win, sometimes you don’t)
- Variable interval schedules (you expect the sale but you don’t know when)
- Positive reinforcement schedule is designed to reward the targeted behaviour with a
positive outcome for the consumer. Positive reinforcement happens when consumers
like whatever they buy.
3. Describe the different modes of cognitive learning
Cognitive learning theories focus on learning through internal mental processes and
conscious thought. Engaging in the high involvement decision process using a combination of
previous experiences (internal) and new information (external). (used when purchasing
something big, expensive and unusual).
Information processing model: explains how communications are received by the consumer
and then interpreted, stored in the memory, and later retrieved in a logical and sequential
fashion.
, Exposure (to advertising and brands) → attention (leading to perception and categorization of
stimuli) → comprehension ( searches and identifies meaning) → acceptance/rejection (reach
a point of acceptance or rejection of the options) → retention (gathered information can be
used for a future purchase)
4. Explain the different functions of sensory, short-term, and long-term memory
Sensory memory is received in its sensory form (sight, smell, etc.). It only stays for half a
second since it’s automatic and does not involve attention.
Short-term memory holds a small amount of information for a short period of time.
Long-term memory is achieved by encoding memories through engrams which are neural
networks connecting new memories with old ones. Types of long-term memory:
- Procedural memory (how to ride a bike)
- Declarative memory (events that have taken place)
- Episodic memory (own life)
- Semantic memory (wereld)
5. Understand and evaluate the role of memory in retraining and retrieving information
Retrieval is the process whereby we remember and access our stored memories:
- Recollection reconstruct memory through a range of different narratives
- Recognition experiencing it again
- Relearning relearn something you have previously learned
Explicit memory conscious recollection of an experience
Implicit memory remembering without conscious awareness. (walking past a sports section in
a shop and remembering afterwards where to buy tennis shoes).
Aiding memory: repetition and spacing (leaving time in between) + position and duration
(during a commercial break) + pictorial and verbal cues.
6. Explain the issues around social learning, including observational and vicarious
learning
, Theory of social learning, learning by copying others. Observational learning (vicarious
learning) = copying others, learn from the experiences of others
1. What are the key differences between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning = examine stimulus generalization and discrimination (first-order
(pavlov) & high-order conditioning + stimulus generalization + stimulus discrimination)
Operant conditioning = is the changing of behaviour through reinforcement following a desired
response. Learning through behaviour (find nice coffee → you go there again). Which
consists of the four reinforcement schedules.
2. Explain the difference between observational learning and passive learning.
The difference between passive learning and observational learning is whether the learning is
consciously done (whether we are aware of the learning process and put effort into it) or not.
Observational learning means that you observe others' behaviour, focus on it, and learn from
it (either in terms of "I want it/do that as well" or "I would never do that"). Passive learning
goes automatically, without you having put any consciousness or cognitive effort into it. There
is no reason why you would want to remember commercial slogans or songs, but you will
often find yourself remembering commercial slogans from years ago.
3. Explain the importance of social learning for understanding consumer behaviour.
That we are prepared to learn like this is important, as it means that consumers will do some
of the work for marketers and may even mean that businesses can reduce staff costs where
consumers help themselves. This knowledge of learning enables organizations to make
positive links to their brand.
Week 1, Article about goals by Veronika Brandstätter and Marie Hennecke
Feasibility = haalbaarheid
Desirability = wenselijkheid
Determinants = bepaalde factoren
Incentives = stimulansen/prikkels
● Name, explain and apply the concept of goals, as well as different types of goals.
- ‘’We define goals as internal representations of desired states, where states are broadly
construed as outcomes, events, or processes.”
- Goals regulate thinking, emotions, and behaviour. Psychological research examines
very different types of goals, ranging from specific goals defined in a laboratory setting to
personal goals.
● Name, explain and apply the concept of commitment and how commitment is
related to goals
- “Commitment […] describes the extent to which personal goals are associated with a
strong sense of determination, with the willingness to invest effort, and with impatient
striving for goal implementation.”
- Various theories on commitment and intention strength are based on assumptions of
expectancy-value theory.
-Commitment is thus of utmost importance for applied motivational psychology.
- Goal commitment can be split into; Desirability of goal achievement and Feasibility of
goal achievement.
● Name, explain, and apply the theory of expectancy-value theory of goals, goal
systems theory (including goal shielding), goal setting theory, the Rubicon model
, of action phases, and the concept of implementation intentions
- Expectancy value theory of goals: The central claim of expectancy-value theory is that
the desirability (value) and feasibility (expectancy) of a goal determine which goals an
individual selects and how much they commit to the selected goals.
- Goal system theory: Goals are embedded in goal systems consisting of interconnected
means and goals, that can mutually activate each other cognitively.
Bottom-up goal priming: means are subordinate to goals within goal hierarchies, means
co-active goals. bottom-up priming resulted in stronger persistence and improved
performance due to the increased accessibility of the goal in question.
Top-down priming: goals co-active means.
The same goal can be reached with more than only one means (equifinality). On the other
hand, the same means can help us with reaching multiple goals, to proverbially “kill
several birds with one stone” (multifinality).
Goals shielding: see below
- Goal-setting theory: Goal-setting theory discusses which types of goals have optimal
effects on performance. In particular, the theory claims that concrete and challenging
goals tend to be superior in this regard to vague goals of the “do your best” type.
-Rubicon model of action phases:
The Rubicon model of action phases provides a theoretical distinction between motivation
and volition by postulating specific cognitive characteristics for motivational (goal setting)
and volitional (goal realization) phases, respectively. The process of goal striving – from
the emerging of numerous wishes over the formation of a clear intention to its realization
– is divided into four phases:
(a) deliberating different wishes until one is selected to become a goal intention,
(b) planning the realization of a selected goal intention,
(c) acting toward goal realization, and finally,
(d) evaluating the results.
Each phase is associated with a specific cognitive orientation (mindset) that supports
meeting their respective requirements.
Thus, when we make decisions and set goals, we tend to be balanced, whereas we tend
to see things in a very positive light when we plan how to and actually realize our goals,
which can sometimes cause us to overestimate our possibilities in order to shield these
goals from doubt.
- Implementation intentions:
These intentions are mental links between a suitable behavioural opportunity and the
planned action that have the following format: “If opportunity X occurs, I will do Y.”
implementation intentions combine consciously controlled and automatic processes of
behavioural regulation.
● Explain how consumers deal with the existence of multiple goals at the same time.
For example, you need to be able to name and explain goal shielding, goal
Marketing:
Chapter 4 consumer behaviour
1. Demonstrate understanding of the main approaches to learning
Learning is the activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skill by studying, practising, or
experiencing something.
2. Understand what is meant by behavioural learning, and the difference between
classical and operant conditioning.
Behavioural learning is concerned with learning as a response to changes in our environment
(previous positive experience, making a decision to buy it again).
Classical conditioning:
- First-order conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (ringing a bell) acquires
motivational importance by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) which
is intrinsically aversive or rewarding.
- Higher-order conditioning is the pairing of two conditioned stimuli (pairing of a song
and a brand).
- Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus
elicits a similar conditioned response (brand extension).
- Evaluative conditioning: changes in the liking of the stimulus (brand) linked to the
pairing of that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli (e.g. celebrity)
Operant conditioning is the changing of behaviour through reinforcement following a desired
response. Learning through behaviour (find nice coffee → you go there again).
Four reinforcement schedules:
- A fixed-ratio schedule (cafe Nero stamps card)
- A fixed-interval schedule (sale three times a year)
- Variable schedules (gambling, sometimes you win, sometimes you don’t)
- Variable interval schedules (you expect the sale but you don’t know when)
- Positive reinforcement schedule is designed to reward the targeted behaviour with a
positive outcome for the consumer. Positive reinforcement happens when consumers
like whatever they buy.
3. Describe the different modes of cognitive learning
Cognitive learning theories focus on learning through internal mental processes and
conscious thought. Engaging in the high involvement decision process using a combination of
previous experiences (internal) and new information (external). (used when purchasing
something big, expensive and unusual).
Information processing model: explains how communications are received by the consumer
and then interpreted, stored in the memory, and later retrieved in a logical and sequential
fashion.
, Exposure (to advertising and brands) → attention (leading to perception and categorization of
stimuli) → comprehension ( searches and identifies meaning) → acceptance/rejection (reach
a point of acceptance or rejection of the options) → retention (gathered information can be
used for a future purchase)
4. Explain the different functions of sensory, short-term, and long-term memory
Sensory memory is received in its sensory form (sight, smell, etc.). It only stays for half a
second since it’s automatic and does not involve attention.
Short-term memory holds a small amount of information for a short period of time.
Long-term memory is achieved by encoding memories through engrams which are neural
networks connecting new memories with old ones. Types of long-term memory:
- Procedural memory (how to ride a bike)
- Declarative memory (events that have taken place)
- Episodic memory (own life)
- Semantic memory (wereld)
5. Understand and evaluate the role of memory in retraining and retrieving information
Retrieval is the process whereby we remember and access our stored memories:
- Recollection reconstruct memory through a range of different narratives
- Recognition experiencing it again
- Relearning relearn something you have previously learned
Explicit memory conscious recollection of an experience
Implicit memory remembering without conscious awareness. (walking past a sports section in
a shop and remembering afterwards where to buy tennis shoes).
Aiding memory: repetition and spacing (leaving time in between) + position and duration
(during a commercial break) + pictorial and verbal cues.
6. Explain the issues around social learning, including observational and vicarious
learning
, Theory of social learning, learning by copying others. Observational learning (vicarious
learning) = copying others, learn from the experiences of others
1. What are the key differences between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning = examine stimulus generalization and discrimination (first-order
(pavlov) & high-order conditioning + stimulus generalization + stimulus discrimination)
Operant conditioning = is the changing of behaviour through reinforcement following a desired
response. Learning through behaviour (find nice coffee → you go there again). Which
consists of the four reinforcement schedules.
2. Explain the difference between observational learning and passive learning.
The difference between passive learning and observational learning is whether the learning is
consciously done (whether we are aware of the learning process and put effort into it) or not.
Observational learning means that you observe others' behaviour, focus on it, and learn from
it (either in terms of "I want it/do that as well" or "I would never do that"). Passive learning
goes automatically, without you having put any consciousness or cognitive effort into it. There
is no reason why you would want to remember commercial slogans or songs, but you will
often find yourself remembering commercial slogans from years ago.
3. Explain the importance of social learning for understanding consumer behaviour.
That we are prepared to learn like this is important, as it means that consumers will do some
of the work for marketers and may even mean that businesses can reduce staff costs where
consumers help themselves. This knowledge of learning enables organizations to make
positive links to their brand.
Week 1, Article about goals by Veronika Brandstätter and Marie Hennecke
Feasibility = haalbaarheid
Desirability = wenselijkheid
Determinants = bepaalde factoren
Incentives = stimulansen/prikkels
● Name, explain and apply the concept of goals, as well as different types of goals.
- ‘’We define goals as internal representations of desired states, where states are broadly
construed as outcomes, events, or processes.”
- Goals regulate thinking, emotions, and behaviour. Psychological research examines
very different types of goals, ranging from specific goals defined in a laboratory setting to
personal goals.
● Name, explain and apply the concept of commitment and how commitment is
related to goals
- “Commitment […] describes the extent to which personal goals are associated with a
strong sense of determination, with the willingness to invest effort, and with impatient
striving for goal implementation.”
- Various theories on commitment and intention strength are based on assumptions of
expectancy-value theory.
-Commitment is thus of utmost importance for applied motivational psychology.
- Goal commitment can be split into; Desirability of goal achievement and Feasibility of
goal achievement.
● Name, explain, and apply the theory of expectancy-value theory of goals, goal
systems theory (including goal shielding), goal setting theory, the Rubicon model
, of action phases, and the concept of implementation intentions
- Expectancy value theory of goals: The central claim of expectancy-value theory is that
the desirability (value) and feasibility (expectancy) of a goal determine which goals an
individual selects and how much they commit to the selected goals.
- Goal system theory: Goals are embedded in goal systems consisting of interconnected
means and goals, that can mutually activate each other cognitively.
Bottom-up goal priming: means are subordinate to goals within goal hierarchies, means
co-active goals. bottom-up priming resulted in stronger persistence and improved
performance due to the increased accessibility of the goal in question.
Top-down priming: goals co-active means.
The same goal can be reached with more than only one means (equifinality). On the other
hand, the same means can help us with reaching multiple goals, to proverbially “kill
several birds with one stone” (multifinality).
Goals shielding: see below
- Goal-setting theory: Goal-setting theory discusses which types of goals have optimal
effects on performance. In particular, the theory claims that concrete and challenging
goals tend to be superior in this regard to vague goals of the “do your best” type.
-Rubicon model of action phases:
The Rubicon model of action phases provides a theoretical distinction between motivation
and volition by postulating specific cognitive characteristics for motivational (goal setting)
and volitional (goal realization) phases, respectively. The process of goal striving – from
the emerging of numerous wishes over the formation of a clear intention to its realization
– is divided into four phases:
(a) deliberating different wishes until one is selected to become a goal intention,
(b) planning the realization of a selected goal intention,
(c) acting toward goal realization, and finally,
(d) evaluating the results.
Each phase is associated with a specific cognitive orientation (mindset) that supports
meeting their respective requirements.
Thus, when we make decisions and set goals, we tend to be balanced, whereas we tend
to see things in a very positive light when we plan how to and actually realize our goals,
which can sometimes cause us to overestimate our possibilities in order to shield these
goals from doubt.
- Implementation intentions:
These intentions are mental links between a suitable behavioural opportunity and the
planned action that have the following format: “If opportunity X occurs, I will do Y.”
implementation intentions combine consciously controlled and automatic processes of
behavioural regulation.
● Explain how consumers deal with the existence of multiple goals at the same time.
For example, you need to be able to name and explain goal shielding, goal
