Research design and research methods - Lecture Notes
WEEK 1
LECTURE 1
What is special about scientific research?
Finding answers to scientific research questions (about gaining some knowledge) (collecting facts)
General research questions (GRQ): What are the weather characteristics in the Netherlands?
develop research instruments : rainbowls, scale that tells you how much rains fall in one specific
day). Animal meter; wind meter scale that tells you the speed of the wind.
Scientific research is..
- Objective; should not depend on the person who collects the data.
- the data collection should be unbiased (not prejudiced when collecting scientific data)
- non-normative (should present facts, not norms)
- Systematic; all your measures should be reliable and valid.
- Measurement should be reliable (does the instrument measures consistently?)
related to random error
- Measurement should be valid (does the instrument measures what is suppose to measure)
related to systematic error
- Theoretical
- Make use of existing and sometimes competing theories (research proposal)
- Cumulative (research results)
Distinctions in scientific research
Types of research:
- Descriptive (exploratory) research: Describes something in the world.
Example: What is the average income in the Netherlands?
- Correlational research: Investigates the relations between at least two constructs
Example: Is income in the Netherlands related to gender?
- Explanatory research: Investigates causality between constructs?
Example: Does network determines income?
Ovale shapes are a construct; a latent variable income is my construct --> is latent (unobservable)
you have to translate that into a set of observable variables measure the number of euros a
person ears in the Netherlands. It is the observable variables that you analyze, but the conclusion
are probably at the level of the constructs.
Primary data: Self-collected data
- through scientific research (laboratory experiment)
GRQ: Is playing violent videogames related to aggressive behaviour in public?
Secondary data: Other researchers’ primary data
- Desk research
GRQ: is snowfall related to traffic jams?
Empirical vs. non-empirical
Empirical: Knowledge acquired through observations (synthetic): collecting facts.
Non-empirical: Knowledge based on logic or definition (analytic): theory of albert Einstein.
,Hypotheses suited for empirical research?
- the Dutch population has increased over the last decade Secondary data (YES)
- Parallel roads do not cross (NO) matter of definition
- European countries are more wealthy than African countries 1st: what are the construct that are
included in this hypotheses? Continent & wealth (unobservable) theoretical part Countries &
GNP (indicator) collect & analyse data (YES)
Quantitative vs. qualitative research
Quantitative:
- measurement in terms of numbers
- Identifying general patterns that apply to many objects
- Example: attitude-behavior link
Measured with a few variables (reductionist approach; nomothetic)
Qualitative:
- Measurement in terms of words
- Identifying unique patterns in only a few objects
- Example: What is your opinion about Fair Trade coffee?
Measured with many variables (holistic approach; idiographic)
Beta vs. Gamma vs. Alpha
Beta: Natural and technical sciences (biology, chemistry, physics)
Gamma: social sciences (psychology, anthropology)
Alpha: Humanities (language, history, philosophy)
Applied or practice-oriented research vs. fundamental or theory-oriented research
Applied research or practice-oriented research:
- gain knowledge to help solve a practical problem
Example: fuel-wood use and deforestation in Africa.
Fundamental research or theory-oriented research
- gain knowledge to improve or expand existing knowledge about a specific phenomenon (Houston
and Mumbai floods)
Example: Identification of dimensions constituting a disaster experience (construct)
Disaster experience is a concept emotional component, material, social, physical (4 aspects)
translate an abstract concept and make it a little bit more concrete.
The empirical cycle (discuss research)
Goal: generation and verification of theories
Start: existing knowledge gap
Five phases:
- Theory building
1. Observation
2. Induction
- Theory testing
3. Deduction
4. Testing of hypotheses
5. Evaluation
,Example of a knowledge gap: What causes the extraordinary increase over the last 30 years (1918-
1945) in the mortality attributed to lung cancer?
1. Observation
- Lung cancer has become progressively more common after WW1
- Cities grew
- Lung cancer more common in large towns compared to the countryside
2. Induction
- It could be caused by the tar produced by the combustion of coal but it was quite stable over
time. So not possible.
Start over.
1. Observation
- Lung cancer has become progressively more common after WW1
- Increased use of cars and tarmac or asphalt roads
- Increased smoking of tobacco instead of chewing
2. Induction
- The cause is motor transport (exhaust of cars and particles from the new tarred road surfaces)
- The cause is smoking of cigarettes (tar inhalation)
3. Deduction
- Hypothesis 1: Lung cancer occurs more in people who by their occupation are exposed to exhaust
of cars and/or tarmac roads than in other people
- Hypothesis 2: Lung cancer occurs more among smokers compared to non-smoking
4. Testing
History of lung-cancer patients compared to history of patients with stomach or large bowel cancer.
Data collected at 20 hospitals in London.
5. Evaluation of study results
Senior clinicians and cancer research workers did not trust the dataset, and were therefore not
convinced of a causal relationship.
Go back to the empirical cycle make a new hypothesis that is more strict.
3. Deduction
- Hypothesis 2 extended: The more people smoke, the higher the probability they will die from lung
cancer.
4. Testing
- Longitudinal study: a group of British physicians were categorized according to their smoking
histories/habits. Death causes were analyzed to see whether heavy cigarette smokers had the
highest incidence of lung cancer
5. Evaluation of study results
- smoking not only causes lung cancer but other diseases (such as asthma) as well.
Research proposal
Conceptual design: Why do you want to perform your research project and what is needed?
- Why? (help solve a practical problem, or fill a fundamental knowledge gap)
- What? (Need knowledge in either case)
Technical design: detailed description of all the decisions involved to successfully realize your
research project
- Where? (location)
- When? (time frame)
- How? (study design, research units or objects, data-collection method)
, LECTURE 2
Regulative cycle is not about research phases. Is about problem solving/possibilities for
scientist to help solving a problem. Deliver knowledge that can be used to help a problem.
1. Problem identification: What is the problem? Sometimes the problem is unknown and becomes
visible after explorative research. Starting point = applied research.
- smoking behavior of teenagers
2. Diagnosis: What is/are the cause(s) of the problem? Research aiming at finding the causes of the
problem
- Why do teenagers smoke? Advertisement? Underestimate threat? Peer pressure?
in this steps you can use the empirical cycle is about research phases!
1. Observation: A lot of teenagers smoke + are exposed to many advertisements
2. Induction: Ads cause teenagers to smoke
theory
3. Deduction: Teenagers exposed to ads smoke more than who are not/less exposed
4. Testing: Measure the nr. of ads teenagers are exposed to / nr. of cigarettes
5. Evaluation: Conform or disconfirm theory
3. Design plan: What can we do to solve the problem? Research investigating possible interventions
that might solve the problem (pilot research). Decision is made about specific intervention based on
research output (not a researches task). Small-scale implementation.
- Plan 1: forbid tobacco advertisements
- possible research: find out if this is (politically) supported (focus on prerequisites)
- plan 2: Place warnings on cigarette packages
- Possible research: Pilot study with a small number of teenagers (‘’ intervention)
- plan 3: Forbid smoking in public places
- Possible research: Research to find out the economic consequences for catering
business (focus on side-effects)
Deciding about the plan is a policy decision not a scientific outcome! We only deliver knowledge.
4. Implementation: Intervention is implemented and progress is monitored. Research in order to
measure progress and temporary outcomes. Large-scale implementation. Focusing on the
solution/intervention.
- Execute and monitor intervention plan 1 for example.
- Implement law on smoking advertisement. Monitor if law is followed = research focuses on
intervention
5. Evaluation: Has the problem been solved? Research to assess effectiveness of intervention.
Focusing on the problem we used as starting point.
- Do teenagers smoke less than they used to do? Research focuses on problem.
Research proposal
conceptual design:
The research objective describes your motivation
to perform the research. Why do you want to
perform your research project and what is
needed?
- why? Help solve practical problem, or fill a
WEEK 1
LECTURE 1
What is special about scientific research?
Finding answers to scientific research questions (about gaining some knowledge) (collecting facts)
General research questions (GRQ): What are the weather characteristics in the Netherlands?
develop research instruments : rainbowls, scale that tells you how much rains fall in one specific
day). Animal meter; wind meter scale that tells you the speed of the wind.
Scientific research is..
- Objective; should not depend on the person who collects the data.
- the data collection should be unbiased (not prejudiced when collecting scientific data)
- non-normative (should present facts, not norms)
- Systematic; all your measures should be reliable and valid.
- Measurement should be reliable (does the instrument measures consistently?)
related to random error
- Measurement should be valid (does the instrument measures what is suppose to measure)
related to systematic error
- Theoretical
- Make use of existing and sometimes competing theories (research proposal)
- Cumulative (research results)
Distinctions in scientific research
Types of research:
- Descriptive (exploratory) research: Describes something in the world.
Example: What is the average income in the Netherlands?
- Correlational research: Investigates the relations between at least two constructs
Example: Is income in the Netherlands related to gender?
- Explanatory research: Investigates causality between constructs?
Example: Does network determines income?
Ovale shapes are a construct; a latent variable income is my construct --> is latent (unobservable)
you have to translate that into a set of observable variables measure the number of euros a
person ears in the Netherlands. It is the observable variables that you analyze, but the conclusion
are probably at the level of the constructs.
Primary data: Self-collected data
- through scientific research (laboratory experiment)
GRQ: Is playing violent videogames related to aggressive behaviour in public?
Secondary data: Other researchers’ primary data
- Desk research
GRQ: is snowfall related to traffic jams?
Empirical vs. non-empirical
Empirical: Knowledge acquired through observations (synthetic): collecting facts.
Non-empirical: Knowledge based on logic or definition (analytic): theory of albert Einstein.
,Hypotheses suited for empirical research?
- the Dutch population has increased over the last decade Secondary data (YES)
- Parallel roads do not cross (NO) matter of definition
- European countries are more wealthy than African countries 1st: what are the construct that are
included in this hypotheses? Continent & wealth (unobservable) theoretical part Countries &
GNP (indicator) collect & analyse data (YES)
Quantitative vs. qualitative research
Quantitative:
- measurement in terms of numbers
- Identifying general patterns that apply to many objects
- Example: attitude-behavior link
Measured with a few variables (reductionist approach; nomothetic)
Qualitative:
- Measurement in terms of words
- Identifying unique patterns in only a few objects
- Example: What is your opinion about Fair Trade coffee?
Measured with many variables (holistic approach; idiographic)
Beta vs. Gamma vs. Alpha
Beta: Natural and technical sciences (biology, chemistry, physics)
Gamma: social sciences (psychology, anthropology)
Alpha: Humanities (language, history, philosophy)
Applied or practice-oriented research vs. fundamental or theory-oriented research
Applied research or practice-oriented research:
- gain knowledge to help solve a practical problem
Example: fuel-wood use and deforestation in Africa.
Fundamental research or theory-oriented research
- gain knowledge to improve or expand existing knowledge about a specific phenomenon (Houston
and Mumbai floods)
Example: Identification of dimensions constituting a disaster experience (construct)
Disaster experience is a concept emotional component, material, social, physical (4 aspects)
translate an abstract concept and make it a little bit more concrete.
The empirical cycle (discuss research)
Goal: generation and verification of theories
Start: existing knowledge gap
Five phases:
- Theory building
1. Observation
2. Induction
- Theory testing
3. Deduction
4. Testing of hypotheses
5. Evaluation
,Example of a knowledge gap: What causes the extraordinary increase over the last 30 years (1918-
1945) in the mortality attributed to lung cancer?
1. Observation
- Lung cancer has become progressively more common after WW1
- Cities grew
- Lung cancer more common in large towns compared to the countryside
2. Induction
- It could be caused by the tar produced by the combustion of coal but it was quite stable over
time. So not possible.
Start over.
1. Observation
- Lung cancer has become progressively more common after WW1
- Increased use of cars and tarmac or asphalt roads
- Increased smoking of tobacco instead of chewing
2. Induction
- The cause is motor transport (exhaust of cars and particles from the new tarred road surfaces)
- The cause is smoking of cigarettes (tar inhalation)
3. Deduction
- Hypothesis 1: Lung cancer occurs more in people who by their occupation are exposed to exhaust
of cars and/or tarmac roads than in other people
- Hypothesis 2: Lung cancer occurs more among smokers compared to non-smoking
4. Testing
History of lung-cancer patients compared to history of patients with stomach or large bowel cancer.
Data collected at 20 hospitals in London.
5. Evaluation of study results
Senior clinicians and cancer research workers did not trust the dataset, and were therefore not
convinced of a causal relationship.
Go back to the empirical cycle make a new hypothesis that is more strict.
3. Deduction
- Hypothesis 2 extended: The more people smoke, the higher the probability they will die from lung
cancer.
4. Testing
- Longitudinal study: a group of British physicians were categorized according to their smoking
histories/habits. Death causes were analyzed to see whether heavy cigarette smokers had the
highest incidence of lung cancer
5. Evaluation of study results
- smoking not only causes lung cancer but other diseases (such as asthma) as well.
Research proposal
Conceptual design: Why do you want to perform your research project and what is needed?
- Why? (help solve a practical problem, or fill a fundamental knowledge gap)
- What? (Need knowledge in either case)
Technical design: detailed description of all the decisions involved to successfully realize your
research project
- Where? (location)
- When? (time frame)
- How? (study design, research units or objects, data-collection method)
, LECTURE 2
Regulative cycle is not about research phases. Is about problem solving/possibilities for
scientist to help solving a problem. Deliver knowledge that can be used to help a problem.
1. Problem identification: What is the problem? Sometimes the problem is unknown and becomes
visible after explorative research. Starting point = applied research.
- smoking behavior of teenagers
2. Diagnosis: What is/are the cause(s) of the problem? Research aiming at finding the causes of the
problem
- Why do teenagers smoke? Advertisement? Underestimate threat? Peer pressure?
in this steps you can use the empirical cycle is about research phases!
1. Observation: A lot of teenagers smoke + are exposed to many advertisements
2. Induction: Ads cause teenagers to smoke
theory
3. Deduction: Teenagers exposed to ads smoke more than who are not/less exposed
4. Testing: Measure the nr. of ads teenagers are exposed to / nr. of cigarettes
5. Evaluation: Conform or disconfirm theory
3. Design plan: What can we do to solve the problem? Research investigating possible interventions
that might solve the problem (pilot research). Decision is made about specific intervention based on
research output (not a researches task). Small-scale implementation.
- Plan 1: forbid tobacco advertisements
- possible research: find out if this is (politically) supported (focus on prerequisites)
- plan 2: Place warnings on cigarette packages
- Possible research: Pilot study with a small number of teenagers (‘’ intervention)
- plan 3: Forbid smoking in public places
- Possible research: Research to find out the economic consequences for catering
business (focus on side-effects)
Deciding about the plan is a policy decision not a scientific outcome! We only deliver knowledge.
4. Implementation: Intervention is implemented and progress is monitored. Research in order to
measure progress and temporary outcomes. Large-scale implementation. Focusing on the
solution/intervention.
- Execute and monitor intervention plan 1 for example.
- Implement law on smoking advertisement. Monitor if law is followed = research focuses on
intervention
5. Evaluation: Has the problem been solved? Research to assess effectiveness of intervention.
Focusing on the problem we used as starting point.
- Do teenagers smoke less than they used to do? Research focuses on problem.
Research proposal
conceptual design:
The research objective describes your motivation
to perform the research. Why do you want to
perform your research project and what is
needed?
- why? Help solve practical problem, or fill a
